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• American Dental Association (ADA). https://www.ada.org/resources/practice/legal-and-regulatory/amalgam [accessed May 2026]. 
• Bjorklund G, et. al. 2019. Mercury exposure and its effects on fertility and pregnancy outcome. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 125(4):317-327 
• Brodsky JB, et al. 1985. Occupational exposure to mercury in dentistry and pregnancy outcome. J Am Dent Assoc; 111:779-780. 
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2003. Guidelines for Infection Control in Dental Health-Care Settings. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). 52(RR17):1-61.  
• CDC. 2021. Summary of Infection Prevention Practices in Dental Settings: Basic Expectations for Safe Care. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/oralhealth/infectioncontrol/summary-infection-prevention-practices/index.html https://www.cdc.gov/dental-infection-control/hcp/summary/index.html 
• CDC. 2011. Immunization of Health-Care Personnel: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR); 60 (RR07):1-45. 
• Ericson A, Kallen B. 1989. Pregnancy outcome in women working as dentists, dental assistants or dental technicians. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 61:329-33. 
• Glick M, Goldman HS. 1993. Viral infections in the dental setting: potential effects on pregnant HCWs. J Am Dent Assoc. 124(6):79-86. 
• Heggland I, et al. 2011. Pregnancy outcomes among female dental personnel-a registry-based retrospective cohort study. Scand J Work Environ Health; 37(6): 539-546. 
• Knill-Jones RP, et al. 1975. Anaesthetic practice and pregnancy. Lancet; 2:807-9. 
• LeBeau J. 2015. Laser Safety in the Dental Office. https://www.aldadmin.org/index.cfm/patients/ALD_Blog/show/blogPost/LaserSafetyInTheDentalOffice [last accessed May 2026]. 
• Lindbohm ML, et al. 2007.Occupational exposure in dentistry and miscarriage. Occup Environ Med; 64:127-133. 
• Mann A, et. al. 2020. Considerations for pregnant dental and health care workers amid COVID-19. JDR Clin Trans Res 5(4):300-306. 
• Marklund S, et al. 2019. Work ability and productivity among dentists: associations with musculoskeletal pain, stress, and sleep. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. PMID: 31654126 
• Nagpal N, et al. 2017. A Review of Mercury Exposure and Health of Dental Personnel. Saf Health Work. 8(1): 1-10. 

• Naimi-Akbar A, et al. 2012. Cognitive function among sons of women who worked in dentistry. Scand J Work Environ Health. 38(6):546-552. 
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Dentistry Hazard Recognition, Control and Prevention: Available at: https://www.osha.gov/dentistry/hazard-control-prevention [Accessed 6/2025]. 
• OSHA. Laser/Electrosurgery Plume. https://www.https://www.osha.gov/laser-electrosurgery-plume [Accessed May 2026].  
• OSHA. Mercury OSHA Standards. https://www. https://www.osha.gov/mercury/standards [Accessed May 2026]. 
• Olfert SM. 2006. Reproductive outcomes among dental personnel: a review of selected exposures. J Can Dent Assoc. 72(9):821-5. 
• Romano F, et al. 2017. Electrosurgical Smoke: Ultrafine Particle Measurements and Work Environment Quality in Different Operating Theatres. Int J Environ Res Public Health; 14(2): 137.  
• Rowland A et al. 1995. Nitrous oxide and spontaneous abortion in female dental assistants. Am J Epidemiol. 141(6):531-8. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117468. PMID: 7900720. 
• Smalley P. 2011. Laser safety: Risks, hazards, and control measures. Laser Ther; 20(2): 95-106. 
• Warwick D, et al. 2019. Mercury vapor volatilization from particulate generated from dental amalgam removal with a high-speed dental drill – a significant source of exposure. Jrnl of Occ Med & Tox. 14,22. 
• United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2017. About Dental Amalgam Fillings.  https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/dental-devices/dental-amalgam-fillings [Accessed May 2026]. 

Selected References:

• Ahlqvist VH, et al. 2024. Acetaminophen Use During Pregnancy and Children’s Risk of Autism, ADHD, and Intellectual Disability. JAMA, 331(14):1205–1214. 
• Alwan S, et al. 2022. Paracetamol use in pregnancy – caution over causal inference from available data. Nat Rev Endocrinol, 18(3):190. 
• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2025. Acetaminophen Use in Pregnancy and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes. Practice Advisory, ACOG. https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/practice-advisory/articles/2025/09/acetaminophen-use-in-pregnancy-and-neurodevelopmental-outcomes 
• Andrade C. 2016. Use of acetaminophen (paracetamol) during pregnancy and the risk of autism spectrum disorder in the offspring. J Clin Psychiatry; 77(2):e152-4. Arneja J, et al. 2020. Association between maternal acetaminophen use and adverse birth outcomes in a pregnancy and birth cohort. Pediatr Res; 87(7):1263-1269.
• Aselton P, et al. 1985. First-trimester drug use and congenital disorders. Obstet Gynecol 65:451-5. 
• Aw M, et al. 1999. Neonatal paracetamol poisoning. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed; 81(1):F78. 
• Baker BH, et al. 2020. Association of Prenatal Acetaminophen Exposure Measured in Meconium With Risk of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Mediated by Frontoparietal Network Brain Connectivity. JAMA pediatrics, 174(11):1073–1081. 
• Bauer AZ, et al. 2018. Prenatal paracetamol exposure and child neurodevelopment: A review. Hormones Behav 101:125-147. 
• Baur AZ, et al. 2021. Paracetamol use during pregnancy – a call for precautionary action. Nat Rev Endocrinol, 17(12):757-766. 
• Bornehag CG, et al. 2018. Prenatal exposure to acetaminophen and children’s language development at 30 months. Eur Psychiatry, in press. 
• Bornehag CG, et al. 2018. Reply to: Shukla et al., Commentary on: Prenatal exposure to acetaminophen and children’s language development at 30 months. Eur Psychiatry 51:86. 
• Brandlistuen RE, et al. 2013. Prenatal paracetamol exposure and child neurodevelopment: a sibling-controlled cohort study. Int J Epidemiol; 42(6):1702-13. 
• Castro CT, et al. 2022. Effect of Acetaminophen use during pregnancy on adverse pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Expert Opin Drug Saf, 21(2):241-251.
• D’Antonio F, et al. 2026. Prenatal paracetamol exposure and child neurodevelopment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Obstetrics, Gynaecology, & Women’s Health; 2, e190-e198.
• Damker P, et al. 2022. Handle with care – interpretation, synthesis and dissemination of data on paracetamol in pregnancy. Nat Rev Endocrinol, 18:191. 
• Damkier P, et al. 2025. Acetaminophen in Pregnancy and Attention-Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 145(2):168–176. 
• Feldkamp ML, et al. 2010. Acetaminophen use in pregnancy and risk of birth defects. Obstet Gynecol; 
• Golding J, et al. 2020. Associations between paracetamol (acetaminophen) intake between 18 and 32 weeks gestation and neurocognitive outcomes in the child: A longitudinal cohort study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol; 34(3):257-266. 
• Harvard Health Publishing. 2017. Acetaminophen safety: Be cautious but not afraid. https://www.health.harvard.edu/pain/acetaminophen-safety-be-cautious-but-not-afraid [Accessed 5/18]115(1):109-15. 
• Jick H, et al. 1981. First-trimester drug use and congenital disorders. JAMA; 246(4):343-6.  
• Li DK, et al. 2003. Exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and risk of miscarriage: population-based cohort study. BMJ, 327(7411):368. doi: 10.1136/bmj.327.7411.368. 
• Li D, et al. 2018. Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and risk of miscarriage. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 219(3):275.e1-275e8. 
• Kang EM, et al. 2009. Prenatal exposure to acetaminophen and asthma in children. Obstet Gynecol; 114 (6):1295-1306. 
• Liew Z, et al. 2019. Use of negative control exposure analysis to evaluate confounding: An example of acetaminophen exposure and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Nurses’ Health Study II. Am J Epidemiol 188(4): 768-775. 
• Liew Z, et al. 2014. Acetaminophen use during pregnancy, behavioral problems, and hyperkinetic disorders. JAMA Pediatr;168(4):313-20. 
• Marsh CA, et al. 2014. Case-control analysis of maternal prenatal analgesic use and cardiovascular malformations: Baltimore-Washington Infant Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 211(4):404.e1-9. 
• McElhatton PR, et al. 1997. Paracetamol overdose in pregnancy analysis of the outcomes of 300 cases referred to the Teratology Information Service. Reprod Toxicol; 11(1):85-94. 
• Niederhoff H and Zahradnik HP 1983. Analgesics during pregnancy. Am J Med; 75:117-120. 
• Ricci C et al. 2023. In utero acetaminophen exposure and child neurodevelopmental outcomes: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Paediatric and perinatal epidemiology, 37(5):473–484.  
• Riggs BS, et al. 1989. Acute acetaminophen overdose during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol; 74(2):247-53. 
• Rosevear SK and Hope PL. 1989. Favourable neonatal outcome following maternal paracetamol overdose and severe fetal distress. Case report. Br J Obstet Gynaecol; 96(4):491-3. 
• Smarr MM, et al. 2016. Urinary paracetamol and time-to-pregnancy. Hum Reprod, 31(9):2119–2127.  
• Wesselink AK, et al. 2020. Association Between Male Use of Pain Medication and Fecundability. Am J Epidemiol, 189(11):1348–1359. 
• Zafeiri A, et al. 2022. Maternal over-the-counter analgesics use during pregnancy and adverse perinatal outcomes: cohort study of 151,141 singleton pregnancies. BMJ Open, 12:e048092. 

Selected References:

• ACOG. 1993. Hepatitis in pregnancy. ACOG Technical Bulletin Number 174–November 1992. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 42(2):189-98. 
• Celzo F et al. 2020. Safety evaluation of adverse events following vaccination with Havrix, Engerix-B or Twinrix during pregnancy. Vaccine; 38(40):6215-6223. 
• Chilaka VN, Konje JC. 2020. Viral Hepatitis in Pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol; 256:287-296. 
• Cho GJ, et al. 2013. Hepatitis A virus infection during pregnancy in Korea: Hepatitis A infection on pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol Sci; 56(6):368-374.  
• D’Acremont V, et al. 2008. Impact of vaccines given during pregnancy on the offspring of women consulting a travel clinic: a longitudinal study. J Travel Med; 15(2):77-81.  
• Daudi N, et al. 2012. Breastmilk hepatitis A virus RNA in nursing mothers with acute hepatitis A virus infection. Breastfeed Med; 7:313-315. 
• Dionne-Odom J, et al. 2022. Treatment and prevention of viral hepatitis in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 226(3):335-346.  
• Duff P. 1998. Hepatitis in Pregnancy. Semin Perinatol; 22(4):277-283.  
• Elinav E, et al. 2006. Acute hepatitis A infection in pregnancy is associated with high rates of gestational complications and preterm labor. Gastroenterology; 130(4):1129-1134.  
• Groom HC, et al. 2019. Uptake and safety of hepatitis A vaccination during pregnancy: A Vaccine Safety Datalink study. Vaccine; 37(44):6648-6655. 
• Lemon SM. 1997. Type A viral hepatitis: epidemiology, diagnosis, and prevention. Clin Chem; 43(8 Pt 2):1494-1499.  
• Motte A, et al. 2009. Acute hepatitis A in pregnant women at delivery. Int J infect Dis; 13(2):e49-51.  
• Ornoy A, Tenenbaum, A. 2006. Pregnancy outcome following infections by coxsackie, echo, measles, mumps, hepatitis, polio, and encephalitis viruses. Reprod Toxicol; 21(4):446-457.  
• Panagiotou OA, et al & Costa Rica HPV Vaccine Trial (CVT) Group. 2015. Effect of bivalent human papillomavirus vaccination on pregnancy outcomes: long term observational follow-up in the Costa Rica HPV Vaccine Trial. BMJ 351:h4358457. 
• Selander B, et al. 2009. No evidence of intrauterine transmission of hepatitis A virus from a mother to a premature infant. Acta Paediatr, 98(10):1603-1606 
• Seto MT, et al. 2020. Management of viral hepatitis A, C, D, and E in pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol, 68:44-53.  
• Tang J, et al. 2024. Screening for viral hepatitis carriage. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol; 96:102523.  
• Terrault NA, et al. 2021. Viral hepatitis and pregnancy. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol; 18(2):117-130.  
• Van Damme P, et al. 2023. Hepatitis A virus infection; Nat Rev Dis Primers. 9(1):51.  

Selected References:

• Bang Madsen K, et al. 2023. In utero exposure to ADHD medication and long-term offspring outcomes. Molecular psychiatry; 28(4)1739–1746.  
• Boutroy MJ, et al. 1988. Clonidine: Placental transfer and neonatal adaption. Early Hum Dev; 17:275-286. 
• Bunjes R, Schaefer C. 1993. Clonidine and breast-feeding. Clinical Pharm 12:178-9. 
• Frazier, LM, et al. 2020. Emerging therapies for the treatment of neonatal abstinence syndrome. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine; 6:1-9. 
• Horvath JS, et al. 1985. Clonidine hydrochloride a safe and effective antihypertensive agent in pregnancy. Obstet Gyneco;l 66:634-8. 
• Huisjes, et al. 1986. Is clonidine a behavioural teratogen in the human? Early Hum Dev; 14:43-8. 
• Khan A, et al. 1970. Clonidine (Catapres): a new anti-hypertensive agent. Cur Ther Res; 12:10. 
• Liu X, et al. 2026. Clonidine compromises human sperm functions. Reproductive Toxicology; 140, 109164.  
• Maina A, et al. 2014. Transdermal clonidine in the treatment of severe hyperemesis: A pilot randomized controlled trial (CLONEMESI). BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology; 121,1556–1562. 
• Mirmiran M. 1986. The importance of fetal/neonatal REM sleep. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol; 21:283-91. 
• Rothberger S, et al. 2010. Pharmacodynamics of clonidine therapy in pregnancy: a heterogeneous maternal response impacts fetal growth. Am J Hypertens; 23(11):1234-40. 
• Sevrez C, et al. 2014. [Transplacental or breast milk intoxication to clonidine: a case of neonatal hypotonia and drowsiness]. Arch Pediatr; 21(2):198-200.  
• Stoll C, et al. 1979. Robert’s syndrome and clonidine. J Med Genet; 16:486-8. 
• Terada H, et al. 2005. Oral clonidine advances spermatogenesis in oligozoospermic patients with spermatogenetic maturation arrest. International journal of urology: official journal of the Japanese Urological Association; 12(9),815–820.  
• Tuimala R, et al. 1985. Clonidine in the treatment of hypertension during pregnancy. Annales Chirurgiae et Gynaecologiae Supplementum; 197,47–50. 
• Tsai TH, et al. 1982. Teratologic and reproductive studies of lofexidine. Arzneimittelforsh; 32:962-6. 
• Zangeneh F, et al. 2022. The first report of clonidine in vivo/in vitro effects on infertile women with polycystic ovary syndrome (in vivo/in vitro study). Journal of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology; 42(5),1331–1339.  

Selected References:

• Allocca M, et al. 2018. Sexual and reproductive issues and inflammatory bowel disease: a neglected topic in men. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 30(3):316-322. 
• Asthana R, et al. 2025. Meta-analysis and systematic review on sulfasalazine/5-ASA use during pregnancy: Impact on neonatal and pregnancy outcomes. Reprod Toxicol135:108939. 
• Ban L et al. 2014. Limited risks of major congenital anomalies in children of mothers with IBD and effects of medications. Gastroenterology. 146 (1):76-84. Banerjee, A et al. 2019. Inflammatory
• Bowel Disease Therapies Adversely Affect Fertility in Men- A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Endocrine, metabolic & immune disorders drug targets, 19(7), 959–974.  
• Chermesh I & Eliakim R. 2004. Mesalazine-induced reversible infertility in a young male. Dig Liver Dis 36:551-2. 
• Diav-Citrin O, et al. 1998. The safety of mesalamine in human pregnancy: a prospective controlled cohort study. Gastroenterology; 114:23-28.  
• Gaidos J. & Kane SV. 2020. Medication Adherence During Pregnancy in IBD: Compliance Avoids Complications. Digestive diseases and sciences, 10.1007/s10620-020-06271-w. Advance online publication. 
• Hosseini-Carroll P, et al. 2015. Pregnancy and inflammatory bowel diseases: Current perspectives, risks and patient management. World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther. 6(4):156-171. 
• Ito S, et al. 1993. Prospective follow-up of adverse reactions in breast-fed infants exposed to maternal medication. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 168:1393-9. 
• Källén B. 2014. Maternal use of 5-aminosalicylates in early pregnancy and congenital malformation risk in the offspring. Scand J Gastroenterol; 49(4):442-8.  
• Mahadevan U, Matro R. Care of the pregnant patient with inflammatory bowel disease. Obstet Gynecol. 2015;126:401-12.  
• Maliszewska, AM, et al. 2017. Inflammatory bowel disease and pregnancy. Ginekologia Polska, 88(7), 398-403. 
• Marteau P & Devaux CB. 1994. Mesalazine during pregnancy. Lancet 344(8938):1708-1709. 
• Moskovitz DN, et al. 2004. The effect on the fetus of medications used to treat pregnant inflammatory bowel-disease patients. Am J Gastroenterol 99(4):656-661. 
• Moretti ME. 1998. Prospective follow-up of infants exposed to 5-aminosalicylic acid containing drugs through maternal milk. Theses Canada. Moretti ME, et al. 1998. Prospective follow-up of infants exposed to 5-aminosalicylic
• acid containing drugs through maternal milk. J Clin Pharmacol. 38:867. 
• Nelis GF. 1989. Diarrhoea due to 5-aminosalicylic acid in breastmilk. Lancet 1:383. 
• Nielsen OH, et al. 2014. IBD medications during pregnancy and lactation. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 11(2):116-127.  
• Norgård, B et al. 2003. Birth outcome in women exposed to 5-aminosalicylic acid during pregnancy: a Danish cohort study. Gut, 52(2), 243–247.  
• Pervez, H, et al. 2019. The Impact of Inflammatory Bowel Disease on Pregnancy and the Fetus: A Literature Review. Cureus, 11(9), e5648.  
• Shin T, et al. 2014. Inflammatory bowel disease in subfertile men and the effect of mesalazine on fertility. Syst Biol Reprod Med. 60(6); 373-376. 
• Silverman DA, et al. 2005. Is mesalazine really safe for use in breastfeeding mothers? Gut 54: 170-1. 
• Watanabe, C. et al. 2020. Non-adherence to Medications in Pregnant Ulcerative Colitis Patients Contributes to Disease Flares and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes. Digestive diseases and sciences, 10.1007/s10620-020-06221-6. Advance online publication.  
• Wiersma TK, et al. 2022. The Effect of Pregnancy and Inflammatory Bowel Disease on the Pharmacokinetics of Drugs Related to Inflammatory Bowel Disease-A Systematic Literature Review. Pharmaceutics. 14(6):1241. 
• Xu YL, et al. 2017. Inflammatory bowel disease in pregnancy: A report of 7 cases and review of the literature. Int J Clin Exp Med; 10:5525-32.