Lead

Selected References:

  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2007. Toxicological Profile for Lead. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.  
  • American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2023. Lead screening during pregnancy and lactation.  Committee Opinion Number 533. Obstet Gynecol, 120(2, part 1):416-419   
  • Appleton AA, et al. 2021. Prenatal lead and depression exposures jointly influence birth outcomes and NR3C1 DNA methylation. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 18(22):12169.  
  • Araujo MSA, et al. 2022. Prenatal exposure to metals and neurodevelopment in infants at six months: Rio Birth Cohort Study of Environmental Exposure and Child Development (PIPA Project). Int J Environ Res Public Health, 19(7):4295.  
  • Ashley-Martin J, et al. 2019. Blood metal levels and early childhood anthropometric measures in a cohort of Canadian children. Environ Res, 179(Pt A):108736.  
  • Ashrap P, et al. 2020. Maternal blood metal and metalloid concentrations in association with birth outcomes in northern Puerto Rico. Environ Int, 138:105606.  
  • Bellinger DC. 2005. Teratogen update: Lead and pregnancy. Birth Defects Research Part A: Clinical and Molecular Teratology, 73: 409-420. 
  • Bellinger D. 2005. Lead. Pediatrics, 113:1016-1022. 
  • Bellinger D. 2008. Neurological and behavioral consequences of childhood lead exposure. PLoS Med, 5(5):e115.  
  • Bloom MS, Fujimoto V, et al. 2012(a). Background exposure to toxic metals in women adversely influences pregnancy during in vitro fertilization (IVF). Reprod Toxicol, 34(3):471-481.  
  • Bloom MS, Kim K, et al. 2012(b). Associations between toxic metals in follicular fluid and in vitro fertilization (IVF) outcomes. Assist Reprod Genet, 29(12):1369-1379.  Bloom MS, Louis GMB, et al. 2011(a). Associations between blood metals and fecundity among women residing in New York State. Reprod Toxicol, 31(2):158-163.
  • Bloom MS. Parsons PJ, et al. 2011(b). Toxic trace metals and embryo quality indicators during in vitro fertilization (IVF). Reprod Toxicol, 31(2):167-170.  
  • Borja-Aburto, VH. 1999. Blood lead levels measured prospectively and risk of spontaneous abortion. Am J Epidemiol, 150(6):590-597.  
  • Buck Louis GM, et al. 2016. Paternal exposures to environmental chemicals and time-to-pregnancy: overview of results from the LIFE study. Andrology, 4(4):639-47. 
  • Buck Louis GM, et al. 2017. Low-level environmental metals and metalloids and incident pregnancy loss. Reprod Toxicol, 69:68-74.  
  • Bui LTM, et al. 2022. Does short-term, airborne lead exposure during pregnancy affect birth outcomes? Quasi-experimental evidence from NASCAR’s deleading policy. Environ Int, 166:107354.  
  • Butts CD, et al. 2021. Toxic elements in follicular fluid adversely influence the likelihood of pregnancy and live birth in women undergoing IVF. Hum Reprod Open, 2021(3):hoab023.  Calamandrei, G, et al. 2020. Pregnancy exome and
  • child psychomotor development in three European birth cohorts. Environ Res, 181:108856.   
  • Cantor AG, et al. 2019. Screening for elevated blood lead levels in childhood and pregnancy: Updated evidence report & systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA, 321(15):1510-1526.  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2025. About Lead in Paint. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/lead-
  • prevention/prevention/paint.html. [Accessed November 2025]. 
  • CDC. 2010. Guidelines for the Identification and Management of Lead Exposure in Pregnant and Lactating Women. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/lead-prevention/media/pdfs/2025/03/cdc_147837_DS1.pdf [Accessed 1/2020]. 
  • CDC. 2025. Lead and Breastfeeding. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding-special-circumstances/hcp/exposures/lead.html/ [Accessed November 2025]. 
  • Chang SH, et al. 2006. Low blood lead concentration in association with infertility in women. Environ Res, 101(3):380-386.  
  • Cherkani-Hassani A, et al. 2021. Lead concentrations in breast milk of Moroccan nursing mothers and associated factors of exposure: CONTAMILK Study. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol, 85:103629.  
  • Cowell W, et al. 2021. Prenatal metal mixtures and sex-specific infant negative affectivity. Environ Epidemiol, 5(2):e14. 
  • Cowell W, et al. 2020. Prenatal toxic metal mixture exposure and newborn telomere length: Modification by maternal antioxidant intake. Environ Res, 190:110009.  
  • Dabeka RW, McKenzie AD. 1988. Lead and cadmium levels in commercial infant foods and dietary intake by infants 0-1 year old. Food Addit Contam, 5333-342. 
  • Dietrich K, et al. 1993. The developmental consequences of low to moderate prenatal and postnatal lead exposure: intellectual attainment in the Cincinnati lead study cohort following school entry. Neurotoxicol Teratology, 15:37-44.  
  • Disha S, et al. 2019. Association of raised blood lead levels in pregnant women with preeclampsia: A study at tertiary centre. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol. 58(1):60-63.  
  • Dorea JG. 2019. Environmental exposure to low-level lead (Pb) co-occurring with other neurotoxicants in early life and neurodevelopment in children. Environ Res, 177:108641.  
  • Dorea JG. 2021. Exposure to environmental neurotoxic substances and neurodevelopment in children from Latin America and the Caribbean. Environ Res, 192:110199. 
  • Dutta S, et al. 2021. Environmental and occupational exposure to metals and female reproductive health. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, doi:10.1007/s11356-021-16581-9.  
  • Ernhart CB. 1992. A critical review of low-level prenatal lead exposure in the human: effects on the fetus and newborn. Reprod Toxicol 6:9-91. 
  • Ernhart, CB, et al. 1986. Intrauterine exposure to low levels of lead: the status of the neonate. Archives Environ Health, 41:287-291. 
  • Ettinger AS, et al. 2004. Effect of breast milk lead on infant blood lead levels at 1 month of age. Environ Health Perspect, 112(14):1381-1385. 
  • Food and Drug Administration. Guidance for Industry: Lead in Candy Likely To Be Consumed Frequently by Small Children. Retrieved 2022 from: https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/guidance-industry-lead-candy-likely-be-consumed-frequently-small-children 
  • Forsyth JE, et al. 2019. Sources of blood lead exposure in rural Bangladesh. Environ Sci Technol, 53(19):11429. 
  • Fruth V, et al. 2021. Prenatal exposure to a mixture of elements and neurobehavioral outcomes in mid-childhood: Results from Project Viva. Environ Res, 201:111540.  
  • Gardella, C. 2001. Lead exposure in pregnancy: a review of the literature and argument for routine prenatal screening. Obstet Gynecol Surv, 56:231-238. 
  • Gari M, et al. 2022. Prenatal exposure to neurotoxic metals and micronutrients and neurodevelopmental outcomes in early school age children from Poland. Environ Res, 204(Pt B):112049.  
  • Geng F, et al. 2014. Low-level prenatal lead exposure alters auditory recognition memory in 2-month-old infants: an event-related potentials (ERPs) study. Dev Neuropsychol, 39(7):516-528. Grossman D, et al. 2019. The impact of the
  • Flint water crisis on fertility. Demography 45:2005-2031. 
  • Gulson BL, et al. 1999. Estimation of cumulative lead releases (lead flux) from the maternal skeleton during pregnancy and lactation. J Lab Clin Med, 134:631-640. 
  • Gulson B, et al. 2016. Revisiting mobilisation of skeletal lead during pregnancy based on monthly sampling and cord/maternal blood lead relationships confirm placental transfer of lead. Arch Toxicol, 90(4):805-816. 
  • Guo J, et al. 2020. Prenatal exposure to mixture of heavy metals, pesticides and phenols and IQ in children at 7 years of age: The SMBCS study. Environ Int, 139:105692. 
  • Guo X, et al. 2022. Effects of single and combined exposure to lead and stress during pregnancy on offspring neurodevelopment. Dev Cogn Neurosci, 56:101124.  
  • Gustin K, et al. 2020. Low-level maternal exposure to cadmium, lead, and mercury and birth outcomes in a Swedish prospective birth-cohort. Environ Pollut, 265(Pt B):114986.  
  • Han I, et al. 2020. Characterization of urinary concentrations of heavy metals among socioeconomically disadvantaged black pregnant women. Environ Monit Assess, 192(3):200. 
  • Hertz-Picciotto I. 2000. The evidence that lead increases the risk for spontaneous abortion. Am J Ind Med, 38(3):300-309.  
  • Hong YC, et al. 2014. Postnatal growth following prenatal lead exposure and calcium intake. Pediatrics, 134(6):1151-1159 
  • Igra AM, et al. 2021. Environmental metal exposure and growth to 10 years of age in a longitudinal mother-child cohort in rural Bangladesh. Environ Int, 156:106738.  
  • Isaac CP, et al. 2012. Lead levels in breast milk, blood plasma and intelligence quotient: a health hazard for women and infants. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 88(2):145-149.  
  • Kabamba M, Tuakuila J. 2020. Toxic metal (Cd, Hg, Mn, Pb) partition in the maternal/foetal unit: A systematic mini-review of recent epidemiological studies. Toxicol Lett, 332:20-26.  
  • Karatela S, et al. 2020. Exposure to toenail heavy metals and child behavior problems in nine-year-old children: A cross-sectional study. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 17(11):4120.  
  • Kaur M, et al. 2022. Increased incidence of spontaneous abortions on exposure to cadmium and lead: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gynecol Endocrinol, 38(1):16-21.  
  • Kim SS, et al. 2020. Birth outcomes associated with maternal exposure to metals from informal electronic waste recycling in Guiyu, China. Environ Int, 137:105580.  
  • Kortei NK, et al. 2020. Potential health risk assessment of toxic metals contamination in clay eaten as pica (geophagia) among pregnant women of Ho in the Volta Region of Ghana. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 20(1):160.  
  • Lamadrid-Figueroa H, et al. 2007. Association between the plasma/whole blood lead ratio and history of spontaneous abortion: A nested cross-sectional study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 7:22.  
  • Lee S, et al. 2020. Female Infertility Associated with Blood Lead and Cadmium Levels. Int J Environ Res Public Health; 17(5):1794. 
  • Lee MS, et al. 2021. Umbilical cord blood metal mixtures and birth size in Bangladeshi children. Environ Health Perspect, 129(5):57006.  
  • Li J, et al. 2017. Maternal serum lead level during pregnancy is positively correlated with risk of preterm birth in a Chinese population. Environ Pollut, 227:484-489.  
  • Li S, et al. 2021. Relationship between maternal heavy metal exposure and congenital heart defects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, doi:10.1007/s11356-022-21071-7. 
  • Lui C, et al. 2022. Association of both prenatal and early childhood multiple metals exposure with neurodevelopment in infant: A prospective cohort study. Environ Res, 205:112450.   
  • Liu J, et al. 2014.  Lead exposure at each stage of pregnancy and neurobehavioral development of neonates. Neurotoxicology, 44:1-7. 
  • Liu M, et al. 2021. Associations between prenatal exposure to cadmium and lead with neural tube defect risks are modified by single-nucleotide polymorphisms of fetal MTHFR and SOD2: A case-control study. Environ Health, 20(1):66.  
  • Liu T, et al. 2019. Trace minerals, heavy metals, and preeclampsia: Findings from the Boston Birth Cohort. J Am Heart Assoc, 8(16):e012436.  
  • Ludvigsson J, et al. 2019. Toxic metals in cord blood and later development of Type 1 diabetes. Pediatr Dimens, 4(2):10.15761/PD.1000186.  
  • Ma J, et al. 2022. Exposure to metal mixtures and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: A nested case-control study in China. Environ Pollut, 306:119439.  
  • Margetaki K, et al. 2021. Associations of exposure to cadmium, antimony, lead and their mixture with gestational thyroid homeostasis. Environ Pollut, 289:117905.  
  • Minnesota Department of Public Health. Blood Lead Screening Guidelines for Pregnant Women in Minnesota. Available at: https://www.leg.state.mn.us/docs/2008/other/080007.pdf  [Accessed 2022]. 
  • Miyashita C, et al. 2021. Association between the concentrations of metallic elements in maternal blood during pregnancy and prevalence of abdominal congenital malformations: The Japan Environment and Children’s Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 18(19):10103.  
  • Montrose L, et al. 2020. Neonatal Lead (Pb) exposure and DNA methylation profiles in dried bloodspots. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 17(18):6775.  
  • National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH)/Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)/CDC. 2010. Guidelines for the Identification and Management of Lead Exposure in Pregnant and Lactating Women. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/index.html  
  • Nyanza EC, et al. 2021. Effects of prenatal exposure and co-exposure to metallic or metalloid elements on early infant neurodevelopmental outcomes in areas with small-scale gold mining activities in Northern Tanzania. 149:106104.  
  • Osorio-Yáñez C, eta al. 2021. Metal exposure and bone remodeling during pregnancy: Results from the PROGRESS cohort study. Environ Pollut, 282:116962.  
  • Ovayolu A, et al. 2020. Amniotic fluid levels of selected trace elements and heavy metals in pregnancies complicated with neural tube defects. Congenit Anom (Kyoto), 60(5):136-141.  
  • Pérez-Debén S, et al. 2020. Copper and lead exposures disturb reproductive features of primary endometrial stromal and epithelial cells. Reprod Toxicol, 93:106-117.  
  • Pesce G, et al. 2020. Foetal exposure to heavy metals and risk of atopic diseases in early childhood. Pediatr Allergy Immunol, 32(3):242-250.  
  • Pollack AZ, et al. 2011. Cadmium, lead, and mercury in relation to reproductive hormones and anovulation in premenopausal women. Environ Health Perspect, 119(8):1156-1161.  
  • Poropat AE, et al. 2018. Blood lead and preeclampsia: A meta-analysis and review of implications. Environ Res, 160:12-19.  
  • Rabinowitz, M, et al. 1987. Pregnancy hypertension, blood pressure during labor, and blood lead levels. Hypertension, 10:447-451. 
  • Rabito FA, et al. 2014. Changes in low levels of lead over the course of pregnancy and the association with birth outcomes. Reprod Toxicol, 50: 138-144. 
  • Röllin HB, et al. 2020. In utero exposure to aluminium and other neurotoxic elements in urban costal South African women at delivery: An emerging concern. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 17(5):1724.  
  • Rosa MJ, et al. 2022. Prenatal lead exposure and childhood lung function: Influence of maternal cortisol and child sex. Environ Res., 205:112447.  
  • Rothenberg, S, et al. 2000. Maternal bone lead contribution to blood lead during and after pregnancy. Environ Res, 82:81-90. 
  • Rygiel CA, et al. 2021. Prenatal lead (Pb) exposure and peripheral blood DNA methylation (5mC) and hydroxymethylation (5hmC) in Mexican adolescents from the ELEMENT Birth Cohort. Environ Health Perspect, 129(6):67002. 
  • Sallmen M, et al. 1995. Time to pregnancy among women occupationally exposed to lead. J Occup Environ Med, 37(8):931-934.  
  • Shvachiy L, et al. 2020. Persistent effects on cardiorespiratory and nervous systems induced by long-term lead exposure: Results from a longitudinal study. Neurotox Res, 37(4):857-870.  
  • Silbergeld, EK 1991. Lead In bone: implications for toxicology during pregnancy and lactation. Environ Health Perspect, 91:63-70. 
  • Sukhn C, et al. 2021. Paternal exposure to non-essential heavy metal affects embryo cleavage and implantation in intracystoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) cycles: Evidence for paradoxical effect. Reprod Sci, 28(9):2550-2561.  
  • Sun X, et al. Maternal heavy metal exposure, thyroid hormones, and birth outcomes: A prospective cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 104(11):5043-5052.  
  • Taylor C, et al. 2015. Adverse effects of maternal lead levels on birth outcomes in the ALSPAC study: A prospective birth cohort study. BJOG, 122(3):322-328 
  • Tiwari AKM, et al. 2020. Effect of iron and folate supplementation on Pb levels in pregnant anemic women: a prospective study. Free Radic Res, 54(8-9):662-669. Tong, S, et al. 1996. Lifetime exposure to environmental lead and children’s intelligence at 11-13 years: The Port Pirie Cohort Study. BMJ, 312:1569-1575.
  • Tung PW, et al. 2022. Association between placental toxic metal exposure and NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scales (NNNS) profiles in Rhode Island Child Health Study (RICHS). Environ Res, 204(Pt A):111939.  
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  • Wang D, et al. 2020. Association between blood lead level during pregnancy and birth weight: A meta-analysis. Am J Ind Med, 63(12):1085-1094.  
  • Wang H, et al. 2017. High serum lead concentration in the first trimester is associated with an elevated risk of small-for-gestational-age infants. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 1;332:75-80. 
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  • Zhang M, et al. 2021. In Utero exposure to heavy metals and trace elements and childhood blood pressure in a U.S. urban, low-income, minority birth cohort. Environ Health Perspect, 129(6):67005.  
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Lead

Selected References:

  • Abdelmaksoud A, et al. 2023. Isotretinoin and pregnancy termination: an overview. Int J Dermatol. 62(4):e255-e256. 
  • Adams J, et al. 1991. Relationship between dysmorphology and neuropsychological function in children exposed to isotretinoin “in utero”. In: T. Fujii and G. J. Boer (eds), Functional Neuroteratology of Short Term Exposure to Drugs. Tokyo: Teikyo University Press, pp.159-170.  
  • Adams J, et al. 1993. Neurobehavioral teratology of isotretinoin. Reprod Toxicol. 7(2):175-177.  
  • Adams J. 1996. Similarities in genetic mental retardation and neuroteratogenic syndromes. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 55(4):683-690.  
  • Alay MT, et al. 2023. A new perspective on isotretinoin in pregnancy: Pregnancy outcomes, evaluation of complex phenotypes, and importance of teratological counselling, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 291:148-155.  
  • Alshaalan ZD. 2022. Knowledge on the Use of Isotretinoin and Its Side Effects and Awareness towards Saudi FDA-Pregnancy Prevention Program among the Female Acne Patients: A Northern Saudi Study. Medicina (Kaunas). 58(11):1609. 
  • Autret-Leca E, et al. 2010 Isotretinoin exposure during pregnancy: assessment of spontaneous reports in France. Drug Saf. 33(8):659-665.  
  • Cha EH, et al. 2022. Pregnancy and neonatal outcomes after periconceptional exposure to isotretinoin in Koreans. Obstet Gynecol Sci. 65(2):166-175.  
  • Chelliah P, et al. 2020. Comprehensive review of reports of menstrual irregularities associated with isotretinoin. Int J Womens Dermatol. 6(5):365-367. 
  • Choi EJ, et al. 2021. The rates of major malformations after gestational exposure to isotretinoin; a systemic review and meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol Sci. 64(4):364-373. 
  • Coleman R, et al. 1994. Effects of isotretinoin on male reproductive system. Lancet 344:198.  
  • Committee on Drugs, American Academy of Pediatrics. 1992. Retinoid therapy for severe dermatological disorders. Pediatrics. 90:119-120.   
  • FDA. 2008 ACCUTANE® (isotretinoin capsules) https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/018662s059lbl.pdf. 
  • Dai WS, et al. 1989. Safety of pregnancy after discontinuation of isotretinoin. Arch Dermatol. 125(3):362-365.   
  • Dai WS, et al. 1992. Epidemiology of isotretinoin exposure during pregnancy. J Am Acad Dermatol. 26(4):599-606. 
  • DiGiovanna JJ, et al. 1984. Etretinate: persistent serum levels of a potent teratogen. Clin Res 32:579A.   
  • Eun-Hwan C, et al. 2022. Pregnancy and neonatal outcomes after periconceptional exposure to isotretinoin in Koreans. Obstet Gynecol Sci. 65(2):166-175. 
  • Fallah H, et al. 2022. Isotretinoin for acne vulgaris – an update on adverse effects and laboratory monitoring. J Dermatol Treat. 33(5)2414-2424. 
  • Goldsmith LA, et al. 2004. American Academy of Dermatology Consensus Conference on the safe and optimal use of isotretinoin: summary and recommendations. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 50(6), 900–906. 
  • Gurel A, et. Al 2023. Effect of systemic isotretinoin therapy on semen parameters. Annals of medicine, 55(1), 2207038.  
  • Jajoria H, et al. 2020. Washout Period for Pregnancy Post Isotretinoin Therapy. Indian Dermatol Online J. 11(2):239-242.
  • Ivask M, et al. 2023. Compliance with Pregnancy Prevention Recommendations for Isotretinoin Following the Amendment of the European Union Pregnancy Prevention Program: A Repeat Study in Estonia. Drugs Real World Outcomes. 11(1):91-98. 
  • Lammer EJ, et al. 1985. Retinoic acid embryopathy. New Engl J Med. 313:837-841. 
  • Lammer EJ, et al. 1988. Isotretinoin dose and teratogenicity. Lancet. 2(8609):503-504.   
  • Lee SM, et al. 2009.  A case of suspected isotretinoin-induced malformation in a baby of a mother who became pregnant one month after discontinuation of the drug. Yonsei Med J. 50(3):445-447. 
  • Loureiro KD, et al. 2005. Minor malformations characteristic of the retinoic acid embryopathy and other birth outcomes in children of women exposed to topical tretinoin during early pregnancy. Am J Med Genet A. 136(2):117-121. 
  • Mitchell AA. 1992. Oral retinoids. What should the prescriber know about their teratogenic hazards among women of child-bearing potential? Drug Saf. 7(2):79-85. 
  • Nulman I. 1998. Steady-state pharmacokinetics of isotretinoin and its 4-oxo metabolite: implications for fetal safety. J Clin Pharmacol. 38(10):926-930.  
  • No Author listed. 1991. Recommendations for isotretinoin use in women of childbearing potential. Teratology. 44(1):1-6.  
  • O’Malley S, et al. 2024. Isotretinoin prescribing and pregnancy prevention; insights from dispensing pharmacists in Ireland. Int J Pharm Pract. 32(5):426-427.  
  • You W, et al. 2024. Adverse Pregnancy and Child Outcomes in Oral Retinoid-Exposed Pregnancies: A Nationwide Population-Based Study. J Korean Med Sci. 39(26):e201.  
  • Zeynep Tırmıkçıoğlu Z, et al. 2024. Face-to-face: isotretinoin use and pregnancy outcome. Int J Dermatol. 63(2):232-238. 
  • Zhu Y, et al. 2025. Isotretinoin Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy and Pregnancy Incidence. JAMA Intern Med. 185(10):1289-1291. 


Lead

Selected References:

  • Andres RL, et al. 2000. Perinatal complications associated with maternal tobacco use. Semin Neonatol, 5:231-41.  
  • Anderson TM, et al. 2019. Maternal Smoking Before and During Pregnancy and the Risk of Sudden Unexpected Infant Death. Pediatrics, 143(4):e20183325. 
  • Baki Yıldırım S, et al. 2023. The Effect of Active and Passive Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy on the Uterine Artery Blood Flow and Obstetric Outcomes: A Prospective Study. Cureus; 15(2):e35270.  Brand JS, et al.2019. Associations of maternal quitting, reducing, and continuing smoking during pregnancy with longitudinal fetal growth: Findings from Mendelian randomization and parental negative control studies. PLoS Med, 16(11):e1002972.  
  • Briggs GG, et al. 2011. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation. 9th ed. Philadelphia : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. P. 270-77.  
  • Buyun L, et al. 2020. Maternal cigarette smoking before and during pregnancy and the risk of preterm birth: A dose-response analysis of 25 million mother-infant pairs. PLoS Med, 17(8):e1003158.  
  • Cnattingius S. 2004. The epidemiology of smoking during pregnancy: smoking prevalence, maternal characteristics, and pregnancy outcomes. Nicotine Tob Res, 6(Suppl 2):S125-40.  
  • Dechanet C, et al. 2010. Effects of cigarette smoking on reproduction. Hum Reprod Update, 17(1):76-95.  Deng K, et al. 2013. Periconceptional paternal smoking and the risk of congenital heart defects: A case-control study. Birth Defects Res (Part A), 97:210-21
  • Ellis LC, et al. 2012. Smoking during pregnancy and psychiatric disorders in preschoolers. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 
  • Einarson A, et al. 2009. Smoking in pregnancy and lactation : a review of risks and cessation strategies. Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 65:325-30.  
  • Fan S, et al. 2024. Associations between tobacco inhalation and semen parameters in men with primary and secondary infertility: a cross-sectional study. Frontiers in endocrinology, 15:1396793. Guo Q, et al. 2023. Mechanism of Human Tubal Ectopic Pregnancy Caused by Cigarette
  • Smoking. Reprod Sci, 30(4):1074-1081.  
  • Han J. et al. 2024.  Parental Smoking and the Risk of Birth Defects in Offspring in China: A Systematic Review and meta-Analysis. Birth Defects Res. 116(12):e2422. 
  • Harrod CS, et al.  2015. Exposure to prenatal smoking and early-life body composition: the healthy start study.  Obesity (Silver Spring), 23(1): 234-241. 
  • Hackshaw A, et al, 2011. Maternal smoking in pregnancy and birth defects: a systematic review based on 173 687 malformed cases and 11.7 million controls. Hum Reprod Update, 17(5):589-604. 
  • Hernandez-Martinez C, et al. 2016. Effects of prenatal nicotine exposure on infant language development: a cohort follow up study. Matern Child Health J. doi: 10.1007/s10995-016-2158-y. 
  • Huizink AC, et al. 2006. Maternal smoking, drinking or cannabis use during pregnancy and neurobehavioral and cognitive functioning in human offspring. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 30:26-41.  
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  • Keyes KM, et al. 2014. Associations of prenatal maternal smoking with offspring hyperactivity: causal or confounded? Psychological Medicine, 44: 857-867. 
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Lead

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Lead

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  • Herdt-Losavio ML et al. 2009. The risk of congenital malformations and other neonatal and maternal health outcomes among licensed cosmetologists. Am J Perinatol, 26(9):625-631.  
  • Herdt-Losavio ML, et al. 2009. The risk of having a low birth weight or preterm infant among cosmetologists in New York State. Matern Child Health J,13(1):90-97.  
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  • Lamplugh A, et al. 2019. Occupational exposure to volatile organic compounds and health risks in Colorado nail salons. Environ Pollut, 249:518-526. 
  • Reinecke JK, et al. 2020. Nail health in women. Int J Womens Dermatol, 6(2):73-79..  
  • OSHA publication OSHA 3542-05 2012. Stay Healthy and Safe While Giving Manicures and Pedicures: A Guide for Nail Salon Workers. https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/publications/3542nail-salon-workers-guide.pdf available in other languages at https://www.osha.gov/nail-salons.   
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