
Lidocaine
Selected References:
- Abboud TK, et al. 1983. Lack of adverse neonatal neurobehavioral effects of lidocaine. Anesth Analg; 62:473-475.
- Abboud TK, et al. 1984. Continuous infusion epidural analgesia in parturients receiving bupivacaine, chloroprocaine, or lidocaine – maternal, fetal, and neonatal effects. Anesth Analg; 63:421-428.
- Actavis Pharma, Inc. 2019. Lidocaine and Prilocaine Cream Drug Label. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=1972d657-2d5a-4697-bba9-80caffc2f2d7. Accessed 29 July 2025.
- Baradari AG, et al. 2017. Bolus administration of intravenous lidocaine reduces pain after an elective caesarean section: Findings from a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Obstet Gynaecol. 37(5):566-570.
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- Demeulemeester V, et al. 2018. Transplacental lidocaine intoxication. J Neonatal-Perinatal Med; 11:439-441.
- Dryden RM, Lo MW. 2000. Breast milk lidocaine levels in tumescent liposuction. Plast Reconstr Surg; 105:2267-2268.
- Favero V, et al. 2021. Pregnancy and Dentistry: A Literature Review on Risk Management during Dental Surgical Procedures. Dent J (Basel). 9(4):46.
- Fujinaga M, Mazze RI. 1986. Reproductive and teratogenic effects of lidocaine in Sprague-Dawley rats. Anesthesiology. 65:626-632.
- Heinonen OP. et al. 1977. Birth Defects and Drugs in Pregnancy. Publishing Sci Group, Littleton, MA.
- Kuhnert BR, et al. 1984. Effects of maternal epidural anesthesia on neonatal behavior. Anesth Analg; 63:301-308.
- Kuhnert BR, et al. 1986. Lidocaine disposition in mother, fetus, and neonate after spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg 65:139-144.
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- Ortega D, et al. 1999. Excretion of lidocaine and bupivacaine in breast milk following epidural anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand; 43:394-397.
- Silveira MPT, et al. 2020. Breastfeeding and risk classification of medications used during hospitalization for delivery: 2015 Pelotas Birth Cohort. Rev Bras Epidemiol. 23:e200026.
- Watson PD, Ott MA. 1982. Lidocaine and mepivacaine in cord blood. Ped Pharm; 2:341-348.
- Wikland, M., Evers, H., Jakobsson, A.-H., Sandqvist, U., & Sjöblom, P. (1990). The concentration of lidocaine in follicular fluid when used for paracervical block in a human IVF-ET programme. Human Reproduction, 5(8), 920–923
- Zeisler JA, et al. 1986. Lidocaine excretion in breast milk. Drug Intell Clin Pharm; 20:691-693.
Lidocaine
Selected References:
- Dentsply Pharmaceutical, Inc. 2021. Prilocaine injection drug label. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=db23a56f-1e41-4843-9220-1b2e3059db41. [Accessed 8/2025].
- Fougera & Co. 2024. Lidocaine and prilocaine cream drug label. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=833cd52c-6470-49c4-937f-1393971f4db9. [Accessed 8/2025].
- Erol S, et al. 2017. Transient methemoglobinemia in three neonates due to maternal pudendal anesthesia. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 27(12):783-784.
- Guay J. 2009. Methemoglobinemia related to local anesthetics: a summary of 242 episodes. Anesth Analg. 108(3):837-45.
- Kirschbaum M, et. al. 1991. [Fetal methemoglobinemia caused by prilocaine–is use of prilocaine for pudendal block still justified?]. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 51(3):228-30.
- Uslu S, Comert S. 2013. Transient neonatal methemoglobinemia caused by maternal pudendal anesthesia in delivery with prilocaine: report of two cases. Minerva Pediatr. 65(2):213-7.
Lidocaine
Selected References:
- Gilboa SM, et al. 2009. National Birth Defects Prevention Study: Use of antihistamine medications during early pregnancy and isolated major malformations. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 85(2):137-150.
- Gilboa SM, et al. 2014. Antihistamines and birth defects: a systematic review of the literature. Expert opinion on drug safety. 13.12: 1667-98.
- Hansen Craig, et al. 2020. Use of antihistamine medications during early pregnancy and selected birth defects: The National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997–2011. Birth defects research16: 1234-52.
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- Katselou M, et al. 2018. A fully validated method for the simultaneous determination of 11 antihistamines in breast milk by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Biomed Chromatogr 32(8):e4260.
- Lenz W. 1966. Malformations caused by drugs in pregnancy. Am J Dis Child 112:99-106.
- Messinis IE, et al. 1985. Histamine H1 receptor participation in the control of prolactin secretion in postpartum. J Endocrinol Investig 8:143-6.
- Michaelis J, et al. 1983. Prospective study of suspected associations between certain drugs administered during early pregnancy and congenital malformations. Teratology 27:57-64.
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Lidocaine
Selected References:
- Ceyhan ST, et al. 2010. Serum vitamin B12 and homocysteine levels in pregnant women with neural tube defect. Gynecol Endocrinol. 26(8):578-581.
- Dror DK, Allen LH. 2018. Vitamin B-12 in human milk: A systematic review. Adv Nutr 9:358s-66s.
- Duggan C, et al. 2014. Vitamin B-12 supplementation during pregnancy and early lactation increases maternal, breast milk, and infant measures of vitamin B-12 status. J Nutr. 144(5):758-764.
- Groenen PMW, et al. 2004. Marginal maternal vitamin B12 status increases the risk of offspring with spina bifida. Am J Obstet Gynecol 191(1):11-17.
- Hampel D, Allen LH. 2016. Analyzing B-vitamins in human milk: Methodological approaches. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 56:494-511.
- Lai JS, et al. 2019. Maternal plasma vitamin B12 concentrations during pregnancy and infant cognitive outcomes at 2 years of age. Br J Nutr. 121(11):1303-1312.
- Munger RG, et al. 2021. Maternal vitamin B12 status and risk of cleft lip and cleft palate birth defects in Tamil Nadu State, India. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 58(5):567-576.
- National Institute of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. 2024. Vitamin B12: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Available at: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminB12-HealthProfessional/. Accessed 6 Jun 2024.
- Nelen WL, et al. 2000. Hyperhomocysteinemia and recurrent early pregnancy loss: a meta-analysis. Fertil Steril. 74(6):1196-1199.
- Ray JG, Blom HJ. 2003. Vitamin B12 insufficiency and the risk of fetal neural tube defects. QJM. 96(4):289-295.
- Ray JG, et al. 2007. Vitamin B12 and the risk of neural tube defects in a folic-acid-fortified population. Epidemiology 18(3):362-366.
- Reznikoff-Etievant MF, et al. 2002. Low Vitamin B(12) level as a risk factor for very early recurrent abortion. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 104(2):156-159.
- Senousy SM, et al. 2018. Association between biomarkers of vitamin B12 status and the risk of neural tube defects. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 44(10):1902-1908.
- Suarez L, et al. 2003. Maternal serum B12 levels and risk for neural tube defects in a Texas-Mexico border population. Ann Epidemiol 13(2):81-88.
- Van Rooij IALM, et al. 2003. Vitamin and homocysteine status of mothers and infants and the risk of nonsyndromic orofacial clefts. Am J Obstet Gynecol 189(4):1155-1160.
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- Zhang T, et al. 2009. Maternal serum vitamin B12, folate and homocysteine and the risk of neural tube defects in the offspring in a high-risk area of China. Public Health Nutr. 12(5):680-686.
Lidocaine
Selected References:
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- Buck Louis GM, et al. 2017. Low-level environmental metals and metalloids and incident pregnancy loss. Reprod Toxicol 69:68-74.
- Byeong-Jin Y, et al. 2016. Evaluation of mercury exposure level, clinical diagnosis and treatment for mercury intoxication. Ann Occup Environ Med 28:5.
- Choy CMY, et al. 2002. Relationship between semen parameters and mercury concentration in blood and in seminal fluid from subfertile males in Hong Kong. Fertil Steril 78(2):426-428.
- Cox C, et al. 199. Prenatal and postnatal methyl mercury exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes. JAMA 282:1333-1334.
- Crump KS, et al. 1998. Influence of prenatal mercury exposure upon scholastic and psychological test performance: Benchmark analysis of a New Zealand cohort. Risk Anal 18:701-713.
- Davidson PW, et al. 1998. Effects of prenatal and postnatal methyl mercury exposure from fish consumption on neurodevelopment. JAMA 280:701-707.
- Davidson PW, et al. 2006. Prenatal methylmercury exposure from fish consumption and child development: A review of evidence and perspectives from the Seychelles Child Development Study. Neurotoxicology 27:1106-1109.
- Debes F, et al. 2016. Cognitive deficits at age 22 years associated with prenatal exposure to methylmercury. Cortex 74:358-69.
- Dorea JG, 2004. Mercury and Lead during breast-feeding. British J of Nutr 92(1):21-40.
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- Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2017. Mercury levels in commercial fish and shellfish (1990–2012). Available at: https://www.fda.gov/food/foodborneillnesscontaminants/metals/ucm115644.htm
- Golding J, et al. 2017. Maternal prenatal blood mercury is not adversely associated with offspring IQ at 8 years provided the mother eats fish: A British prebirth cohort study. Int J Hyg Environ Health 220(7): 1161-1167.
- Golding J, et al. 2022. The benefits of fish intake: Results concerning prenatal mercury exposure and child outcomes from the ALSPAC prebirth cohort. Neurotoxicology 91:22-30.
- Gokoel AR, et al. 2020. Influence of prenatal exposure to mercury, perceived stress and depression on birth outcomes in Suriname: Results from the MeKiTamara Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(12):4444.
- Grandjean P, et al. 1997. Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methyl mercury. Neurotoxicol Teratol 19:417-428.
- Grandjean P, et al. 1999. Methylmercury exposure biomarkers as indicators of neurotoxicity in children aged 7 years. Am J Epidemiol 149:301-305.
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- Klus JK, et al. 2023. Postnatal methylmercury exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 7 years of age in the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 2, NeuroToxicology, 99: 115-119,
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- Myers, et al. 2009. Postnatal exposure to methyl mercury from fish consumption: a review and new data from the Seychelles Child Development Study. Neurotoxicology, 30(3):338-349
- Myers GJ, et al. 2007. Nutrient and methyl mercury exposure from consuming fish. J Nutr 137(12):2805-2808.
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