Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Selected References

  • American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2017. Committee Opinion No. 723. Guidelines for diagnostic imaging during pregnancy and lactation. Obstet Gynecol, 130(4):933-934.
  • American College of Radiology. 2020.ACR Manual on MR Safety. [PDF file]. Retrieved from https://www.acr.org/-/media/ACR/Files/Radiology-Safety/MR-Safety/Manual-on-MR-Safety.pdf.
  • Chartier AL, et al. 2019. The safety of maternal and fetal MRI at 3 T. American Journal of Roentgenology, 213(5): 1170–1173.
  • Lum M, Tsiouris AJ. 2020. MRI safety considerations during pregnancy. Clin Imaging; 62:69-75.
  • Maralani PJ, et al.2023. Safety of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Pregnancy. Radiologie (Heidelb). 63(Suppl 2):34-40
  • Mervak BM, et al. 2019. MRI in pregnancy: Indications and practical considerations. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, JMRI, 49(3):621–631.
  • Ray JG, et al. 2016. Association between MRI exposure during pregnancy and fetal and childhood outcomes. JAMA, 316(9):952-961.


Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Selected References

  • Abdulaziz HM, et al. 2021. Fetal proximal and distal limb anomalies following exposure to mycophenolate mofetil during pregnancy: A case report and review of the literature. Lupus 30(9):1522-1525.
  • Alsebayel MM, et al. 2018. Congenital esophageal atresia and microtia in a newborn secondary to mycophenolate mofeil exposure during pregnancy: A case report and review of the literature. Am J Case Rep 3(19):523-526.
  • Boyle S, et al. 2021.Pregnancy following heart transplantation: A single centre case series and review of the literature. Heart Lung Circ 30:144–53.
  • Coscia LA, et al. 2015. Update on the teratogenicity of maternal mycophenolate mofetil. J Pediatr Genet 4(2):42-55.
  • Egeberg A, et al 2017 Birth outcomes in children fathered by men treated with immunosuppressant drugs before conception-A Danish population-based cohort study. J Invest Dermatol. 137(8):1790-1792.
  • Hoeltzenbein M, et al. 2012. Teratogenicity of mycophenolate confirmed in a prospective study of the European Network of Teratology Information Services. Am J Med Genet A 158A(3):588-596.
  • Huerta A, et al. 2021. Measurement of the passage of mycophenolic acid into breast milk in a patient with lupus nephritis. Kidney Int 100(3):711.
  • Intas Pharmaceuticals. Last updated Jan. 5, 2024. Mycophenolate mofetil drug label information. Available at URL: https://www.dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=741e079a-646b-47ec-84ac-8e12574c2aaf
  • Jones A, et al. 2013. Outcomes of pregnancies fathered by solid-organ transplant recipients exposed to mycophenolic acid products. Prog Transplant 23(2):153-157.
  • Khan F, et al. 2022. Fetal malformations associated with exposure to mycophenolic acid during the first trimester. Int J Pediatr Adolesc Med 9(3):171-173.
  • Kim M, et al. 2013. Mycophenolate fetal toxicity and risk evaluation and mitigation strategies. Am J Transplant 13(6):1383-1389.
  • King RW, et al. 2017. Pregnancy outcomes related to mycophenolate exposure in female kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 17(1):151-160.
  • Krutsch K, et al. 2023. Transfer of mycophenolic acid into human milk. J Nephrol 36:1715-7.
  • Martin MC, et al. 2014. Esophageal atresia and prenatal exposure to mycophenolate. Reprod Toxicol 50:117-121.
  • Martin- Moreno PL, et al. 2021. Paternal safety of the use of mycophenolic acid in kidney transplant recipients. Results of the EMVARON study. Clin Transplant 35(5):e14256.
  • Midtvedt K, et al. 2017. Exposure to mycophenolate and fatherhood. Transplantation 101(7);e214-217.
  • Perez-Aytes A, et al. 2017. Mycophenolate mofetil embryopathy: A newly recognized teratogenic syndrome. Eur J Med Genet 60(1):16-21.
  • Sifontis NM, et al. 2006. Pregnancy outcomes in solid organ transplant recipients with exposure to mycophenolate mofetil or sirolimus. Transplantation 82:1698-1702.


Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Selected References:

  • Ahrens KA, et al. 2013. Antiherpetic Medication Use and the Risk of Gastroschisis: Findings From the National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997-2007. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology. 27(4):340-345.
  • Braig S, et al. 2001. Acyclovir prophylaxis in late pregnancy prevents recurrent genital herpes and viral shedding. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 96:55-58.
  • Centers for Disease Control. 1993. Pregnancy outcomes following systemic prenatal acyclovir exposure – June 1, 1984-June 30, 1993. MMWR. 42:806-809.
  • Douglas JM Jr, Davis LG, Remington ML. 1988. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of the effect of chronically administered oral acyclovir on sperm production in men with frequently recurrent genital herpes. J Infect Dis 157:588-93.
  • Drake AL, et al. 2012. Infant Safety During and After Maternal Valacyclovir Vherapy in Conjunction with Antiretroviral HIV-1 Prophylaxis in a Randomized Clinical Trial. PloS One. 7(4):e34635.
  • Drake AL, et al. 2012. Valacyclovir Suppressive Therapy Reduces Plasma and Breast Milk HIV-1 RNA Levels During Pregnancy and Postpartum: A Randomized Trial. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 205(3):366-375.
  • Kimberlin DF, et al. 1998. Pharmacokinetics of oral valacyclovir and acyclovir in late pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 179(4):846-851.
  • Pasternak B, Hviid A. 2010. Use of acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famciclovir in the first trimester of pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. JAMA 304(8):859-866.
  • Prober CG. 2001. Management of the neonate whose mother received suppressive acyclovir therapy during late pregnancy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 20:90-91.
  • Ratanajamit C, et al. 2003. Adverse pregnancy outcome in women exposed to acyclovir during pregnancy: a population-based observational study. Scand J Infect Dis 35:255-259.
  • Sheffield JS, et al. 2002. Acyclovir concentrations in human breast milk after valaciclovir administration. Am J Obstet Gynecol 186(1):100-102.


Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Selected References:

  • American Health Packaging. 2023. Hydroxyurea Product Label. National Institute of Health DailyMed database. Available at https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c84a2241-6c05-480f-8a5b-049e08c27d73#:~:text=Hydroxyurea%20capsules%2C%20USP%20is%20an,in%20combination%20with%20concurrent%20chemoradiation. [Accessed 10 Jan 2024.]
  • Ballas SK, et al. 2009. Exposure to hydroxyurea and pregnancy outcomes in patients with sickle cell anemia. J Natl Med Assoc. 101(10):1046-1051.
  • Baykal C, et al. 2000. Use of hydroxyurea and alpha-interferon in chronic myeloid leukemia during pregnancy: a case report. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol 21:89-90
  • Boafor TK, et al. 2016. Pregnancy outcomes in women with sickle-cell disease in low and high income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG 123:691-698.
  • Byrd DC, et al. 1999. Hydroxyurea in two pregnant women with sickle cell anemia. Pharmacotherapy 19:1459-1462.
  • Celiloglu M, et al. 2000. Hydroxyurea treatment for chronic myeloid leukemia during pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 79:803-804.
  • Charache S, et al. 1995. Effect of hydroxyurea on the frequency of painful crises in sickle cell anemia. N Engl J Med 332:1317-1322.
  • Cinkotai KI, et al. 1994. Pregnancy after treatment with hydroxyurea in a patient with primary thrombocythaemia and a history of recurrent abortion. J Clin Pathol 47:769-770.
  • Dell’Isola A, et al. 1997. Essential thrombocythemia in pregnancy. A case report and general considerations. Minerva Ginecol 49:165-172.
  • Delmer A, et al. 1992. Pregnancy during myelosuppressive treatment for chronic myelogenous leukaemia. Br J Haematol 82:783-784.
  • Diav-Citrin O, et al. 1999. Hydroxyurea use during pregnancy: a case report in sickle cell disease and review of the literature. Am J Hematol 60:148-150.
  • Doney KC, et al. 1979. Combination chemotherapy for acute myelocytic leukemia during pregnancy: three case reports. Cancer Treat Rep 63:369-371.
  • R. Squib & Sons, LLC. 2022. Hydrea Product Label. National Institute of Health DailyMed database. Available at https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=050bd2a2-a125-721a-e366-255c5466f018. [Accessed 10 Jan 2024.]
  • Fadilah SA, et al. 2002. Successful treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia during pregnancy with hydroxyurea. Leukemia 16:1202-1203.
  • Fernandez H. 1994. [Essential thrombocythemia and pregnancy]. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod 23(1):103-104.
  • Fitzgerald JM, et al. 1993. The combination of hydroxyurea and leucapheresis in the treatment of chronic myeloid leukaemia in pregnancy. Clin Lab Haematol 15:63-65.
  • Grigg A. 2007. Effect of hydroxyurea on sperm count, motility and morphology in adult men with sickle cell or myeloproliferative disease. Intern Med J 37(3):190-192.
  • Habibi A, et al. 2023. Outcomes of pregnancy in sickle cell disease patients: results from the prospective ESCORT-HU cohort study. Biomed 11(2): 597.
  • Italia KY, et al. 2010. Exposure to hydroxyurea during pregnancy in sickle-beta thalassemia: a report of 2 cases. J Clin Pharmacol. 50(2):231-234.
  • Jackson N, et al. 1993. Hydroxyurea treatment for chronic myeloid leukaemia during pregnancy. Br J Haematol 85:203-204.
  • Koh LP, et al. 2002. Four pregnancies in two patients with essential thrombocythaemia – a case report. Ann Acad Med Singapore 31:353-356.
  • Kroner BL, et al. 2022. Pregnancy outcomes with hydroxyurea use in women with sickle cell disease. Am J Hematol. 97(5): 603–612.
  • Malowski AK, et al. 2021. Distinct maternal and fetal pregnancy outcomes in women with sickle cell disease can be predicted using routine clinical and laboratory data. Brit J Haematol 194(6):1063–1073.
  • Marahatta A, Ware RE. 2017. Hydroxyurea: analytical techniques and quantitative analysis. Blood Cells Mol Dis. 67:135–142.
  • 2024. Hydroxyurea Product Label. National Institute of Health Dailymed Database. Available at https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=76957c0d-0f98-4376-bb06-eee651adc09d. [Accessed 14 Feb 2024].
  • National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. 2014. Evidence-based management of sickle cell disease: expert panel report, 2014. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health.
  • Oskuie AE, et al. 2011. Successful outcome of pregnancy in a case of essential thrombocytosis treated with hydroxyurea. Indian J Cancer. 48(2):268-269.
  • Oteng-Ntim E, et al. 2015. Adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes in pregnant women with sickle cell disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Blood 125:3316–3325.
  • Pata O, et al. 2004. Polycythemia vera and pregnancy: a case report with the use of hydroxyurea in the first trimester. Am J Perinatol 21:135-137.
  • Patel M, et al. 1991. Use of hydroxyurea in chronic myeloid leukemia during pregnancy: a case report. Am J Obstet Gynecol 165:565-566.
  • Pecker LH, Kuo KHM. 2022. Go the Distance: Reproductive healthcare for people with sickle cell disease. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 36(6): 1255–1270.
  • Rustin GJS, et al. 1984. Pregnancy after cytotoxic chemotherapy for gestational trophoblastic tumours. Br Med J 288:103-106.
  • Rogers DT, Molokie R. 2010. Sickle cell disease in pregnancy. Obstetrics and gynecology clinics of North America 7(2), 223–237.
  • Saleh AJM, et al. 2014. Leukemia during pregnancy: long term follow up of 32 cases from a single institution. Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Ther 7(2): 63-68.
  • Szanto F, Kovacs L. 1993. [Successful delivery following continuous cytostatic therapy of a leukemic pregnant women]. Orv Hetil 34(10):527-529.
  • Tertian G, et al. 1992. Hydroxyurea and pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 166:1868.
  • Thauvin-Robinet C, et al. 2001. Exposure to hydroxyurea during pregnancy: a case series. Leukemia 15:1309-1311.
  • Ware RE, et al. 2020. Hydroxyurea exposure in lactation: a pharmacokinetics study (HELPS). J Pediatr. 222:236–239.
  • Wright CA, Tefferi A. 2001. A single institutional experience with 43 pregnancies in essential thrombocythemia. Eur J Haematol 66: 152-159.


Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Selected References:

  • Brown S, Mozurkewich E. 2013. Trauma during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 40(1):47-57.
  • Cahill AG, et al. 2008. Minor trauma in pregnancy–is the evaluation unwarranted? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 198(2):208.e1-5.
  • Colantonio A, Mar W, Escobar M, Yoshida K, Velikonja D, Rizoli S, Cusimano M, Cullen N. 2010. Women’s health outcomes after traumatic brain injury. J Womens Health (Larchmt). Jun;19(6):1109-16.
  • Dalton SE, et al. 2023. Major trauma in pregnancy: prediction of maternal and perinatal adverse outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM. 5(9):101069.
  • Dina EK. 2004. Trauma during pregnancy: An analysis of maternal and fetal outcomes in a large population, Am J Obstet and Gynecol. 190, 1661-1668.
  • Dorairaj J, et al. 2012. Delayed presentation of intraperitoneal bladder rupture following domestic violence in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 38(4):753-6.
  • Fabricant SP, et al. 2021. Trauma in pregnancy and severe adverse perinatal outcomes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 34(18):3070-3074.
  • Hattori S, et al. 2021.Factors Influencing Pregnant Women’s Injuries and Fetal Loss Due to Motor Vehicle Collisions: A National Crash Data-Based Study. Healthcare (Basel). 9(3):273.
  • Hauff NJ, et al. 2017. Cumulative trauma and partner conflict predict post-traumatic stress disorder in postpartum African American women. J Clin Nurs;26(15-16):2372-2383.
  • Huls CK, et al. 2018. Trauma in pregnancy. Seminars in Perinatology 42:13-20.
  • Kallen B, et al.1995. Automobile accidents during pregnancy. Reproductive Toxicology 9:591,
  • Leroy-Malherbe V, Bonnier C, Papiernik E, Groos E, Landrieu P. 2006. The association between developmental handicaps and traumatic brain injury during pregnancy: an issue that deserves more systematic evaluation. Brain Inj.;20(13-14):1355–65.
  • Lipson AH. 1990. Trauma and intrauterine amputation/constriction rings/syndactyly. Human/animal model correlation. Teratology 42:330.
  • Luley T, et al. 2013. Perinatal implications of motor vehicle accident trauma during pregnancy: identifying populations at risk. 208(6): 466.e1-5.
  • Nelson DB, et al. 2003. Violence does not influence early pregnancy loss. Fertil Steril. 80:1205–1211.
  • Safdari, M., Safdari, Z., & Pishjoo, M. 2018. Intrauterine Fetal Traumatic Brain Injury Following Motor Vehicle Accident; A Case Report and Review of the Literature. Bulletin of emergency and trauma, 6(4), 372–375.
  • Sakamoto J, et al. 2019. Trauma in pregnancy. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America 37(2):317-338.
  • Shah PS, Shah J. 2010. Knowledge Synthesis Group on Determinants of Preterm/LBW Births. Maternal exposure to domestic violence and pregnancy and birth outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analyses. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 19(11):2017-31.
  • Smith KA, Bryce S. 2013. Trauma in the pregnant patient: an evidence-based approach to management. Emerg Med Pract. 15(4):1-18.
  • van der Knoop BJ, et al. 2015. Effect of (minor or major) maternal trauma on fetal motility: A prospective study. Early Hum Dev 91: 511-517.
  • van der Knoop BJ, et al. 2017. Trauma in pregnancy, obstetrical outcome in a tertiary centre in the Netherlands. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 11: 1-11.
  • Vaajala, M., Kuitunen, I., Liukkonen, R., Ponkilainen, V., Kekki, M., & Mattila, V. M. 2023. Previous traumatic brain injury is associated with an increased odds for gestational diabetes: a nationwide register-based cohort study in finland. Acta diabetologica, 60(10), 1399–1404.
  • Yu H, et al. 2018. Association of intimate partner violence during pregnancy, prenatal depression, and adverse birth outcomes in Wuhan, China. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 18(1):469.