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• Alano MA, et al. 2001. Analysis of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in meconium and its relation to persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Pediatrics, 107:519-523.
• Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. (n.d.). NSAIDs may cause rare kidney problems in unborn babies. Retrieved October 16, 2020, from https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-recommends-avoiding-use-nsaids-pregnancy-20-weeks-or-later-because-they-can-result-low-amniotic
• Choi EY, et al. 2023. Neonatal and maternal adverse outcomes and exposure to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
• drugs during early pregnancy in South Korea: A nationwide cohort study, PLoS Med 20(2):1-19.
• Delker E, et al. 2023. Associations of prenatal exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with preterm birth and small for gestational age infants among women with autoimmune disorders, Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf, 32:225–237.
• Ericson A & Kallen BA. 2001. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in early pregnancy. Reproductive Toxicology, 15:371-375.
• Esposito DB, et al. 2021. Periconceptional nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use, folic acid intake, and the risk of spina bifida. Birth Defects Res, 113(17):1257-1266.
• Hernandez RK, et al. 2012. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug use among women and the risk of birth defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 206(3):228.e1-8.
• Hultzsch S, et al. 2021. First trimester naproxen exposure and outcome of pregnancy – a German case series. Reprod Toxicol, 103:51-57.
• Ito S, et al. 1993. Prospective follow-up of adverse reactions in breast-fed infants exposed to maternal medication. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 168(5):1393-1399.
• Janssen NM & Genta MS. 2000. The effects of immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory medications on fertility, pregnancy, and lactation. Arch Intern Med, 160(5):610-619.
• Kabir Chowdhury MA, et al. 2023. Relationship of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use during pregnancy with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability among offspring. Journal of Women’s Health 32(3):356-365.
• Kallen BA. 2003. Maternal drug use and infant cleft lip/palate with special reference to corticoids. Cleft Palate Craniofac J, 40(6):624-628.
• Kallen BA & Olausson PO. 2003. Maternal drug use in early pregnancy and infant cardiovascular defect. Reprod Toxicol 17(3):255-261.
• Koren G et al. 2006. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs during third trimester and the risk of premature closure of the ductus arteriosus: a meta-analysis. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 40:824-829.
• Malm H & Borish C. 2015. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and antirheumatic drugs. In C Schaefer, P Peters, R Miller (Eds.), Drugs During Pregnancy and Lactation: Treatment Options and Risk Assessment, 3^rd P. 41-45. London: Elsevier.
• Markovic M, et al. 2019. Prenatal exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety, 28(4):452-459.
• McInerney KA, et al. 2017. Preconception use of pain-relievers and time-to-pregnancy: a prospective cohort study. Hum Reprod, 32(1):103-111.
• Nakhai-Pour HR, et al. 2011. Use of nonaspirin nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and the risk of spontaneous abortion. CMAJ, 183(15):1713-1720.
• Nielsen GL, et al. 2001. Risk of adverse birth outcome and miscarriage in pregnant users of non-steroidal anti inflammatory drugs: population based observational study and case control study. BMJ, 322(7281):266-270.
• Li D, et al. 2003. Exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and risk of miscarriage: population based cohort study. BMJ, 327:1-5.
• Li DK, et al. 2018. Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and the risk of miscarriage. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 219(3):275.e1-275.e8.
• Ofori B, et al. 2006. Risk of congenital anomalies in pregnant users of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: a nested case-control study. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol, 77(4):268-279.
• Ostensen M & Ostensen H. 1996. Safety of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in pregnant patients with rheumatic disease. J Rheumatol, 23(6):1045-1049.
• Spencer JP, et al. 2001. Medications in the breast-feeding mother. Am Fam Physician, 64(1):119-127.
• Tanaka S, et al. 2016. Prediction of fetal ductus arteriosus constriction by systemic and local dermatological formulations of NSAIDs based on PK/PD analysis. In J Clin Pharmacol Ther, 54(10):782-794.

Selected References:

• Briggs GG, et al. 2017. Drugs in pregnancy and lactation: a reference guide to fetal and neonatal risk. Eleventh Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer.
• Committee on Drugs, American Academy of Pediatrics. 2001. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human breast milk. Pediatrics. 108:776-789.
• Egerman, et al. 1992. The tetracyclines. Obstet Gynecol Clin NA. 19(3):551-561.
• Genot MT, et al. 1970. Effect of administration of tetracycline on teeth. J Oral Med. 25:75-79.
• Gilman AG, et al. (Eds). 1985. Goodman and Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. Seventh Edition. Macmillan, New York.
• Kline, et al. 1964. Transplacental effect of tetracycline on teeth. JAMA. 188:178.
• Kutscher, et al. 1966. Discoloration of deciduous teeth induced by administration of tetracycline antepartum. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 96:291-292.
• Muanda FT, Sheehy O, Bérard A. 2017. Use of antibiotics during pregnancy and the risk of major congenital malformations: a population based cohort study. Br J Clin Pharmacol. Nov;83(11):2557-2571.
• O’Rahilly R and Mueller F. 1992. Human Embryology & Teratology. New York: Wiley-Liss.
• The WHO Working Group, Bennet, PN (ed). 1988. Drugs and Human Lactation. New York: Elsevier.
• Vennila V, et al. 2014. Tetracycline-induced discoloration of deciduous teeth: case series. J Int Oral Health 6(3): 115-11

Selected References:

• ACOG Committee on Health Care for Underserved Women. 2011 (reaffirmed 2021). Committee Opinion No. 479: Methamphetamine abuse in women of reproductive age. Obstet Gynecol; 117:751-5.
• Ajayi AF et al. 2020. The physiology of male reproduction: Impact of drugs and their abuse on male fertility. Andrologia, 52(9): e13672.
• Brecht ML, Herbeck DM. 2014. Pregnancy and fetal loss reported by methamphetamine-using women. Subst Abuse; 8:25-33.
• Chang L, et al. 2004. Smaller subcortical volumes and cognitive deficits in children with prenatal methamphetamine exposure. Psych Res:Neuroimaging 132:95-106.
• Chomchai C, et al. 2016. Transfer of methamphetamine (MA) into breast milk and urine of postpartum women who smoked MA tablets during pregnancy: Implications for initiation of breastfeeding. J Hum Lact; 32:333-9.
• Chu EK, et al. 2020. Behavior Problems During Early Childhood in Children With Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure. Pediatrics.146(6):e20190270.
• Cohen JM, et al. 2017. Placental complications associated with psychostimulant use in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol; 130(6):1192-201.
• Courtney KE, Ray LA. 2014. Methamphetamine: an update on epidemiology, pharmacology, clinical phenomenology, and treatment literature. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1;143:11-21.
• Derauf C, et al. 2012. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and inhibitory control among young school-age children. J Pediatr; 161(3):452-9.
• Dinger J, et al. 2017. Methamphetamine consumption during pregnancy – effects on child health. Pharmacopsychiatry; 50(3):107-113.
• Dyk Jv, et al. 2014. Maternal methamphetamine use in pregnancy and long-term neurodevelopmental and behavioral deficits in children. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol; 21(2):e185-96.
• Eriksson M, et al. 1981. Amphetamine addiction and pregnancy II. Pregnancy, delivery and the neonatal period. Socio-medical aspects. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 60:253-259, 1981.
• Garey JD, et al. 2020 Teratogen update: Amphetamines. Birth Defects Res.112(15):1171-1182. doi: 10.1002/bdr2.1774. Epub 2020 Aug 4. PMID: 32755038.
• Golub M, et al. 2005. NTP CERHR Expert Panel Report on the reproductive and developmental toxicity of amphetamine and methamphetamine. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol 74(6):471-584.
• Good MM, et al. 2010. Methamphetamine use during pregnancy: maternal and neonatal implications. Obstet Gynecol; 116(2 Pt 1):330-4.
• Gorman MC, et al. 2014. Outcomes in pregnancies complicated by methamphetamine use. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 211(4):429.e1-7.
• Harst L, et al. 2021. Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure: Effects on Child Development–A Systematic Review. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 7;118(18):313-319
• Heinonen OP, et al. 1977. Birth Defects and Drugs in Pregnancy. Littleton, MA: John Wright-PSG, pp 346-347, 439.
• LaGasse LL, et al. 2011. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and neonatal neurobehavioral outcome in the USA and New Zealand. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 33(1):166-75.
• LaGasse LL, et al. 2012. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and childhood behavior at 3 and 5 years of age. Pediatrics; 129(4):681-688.
• Little BB, et al. 1988. Methamphetamine abuse during pregnancy: outcome and fetal effects. Obstet Gynecol; 72:541-4.
• Kalaitzopoulos DR, et al. 2018. Effect of methamphetamine hydrochloride on pregnancy outcome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Addict Med;. 12(3):220-226.
• Kittirattanapaiboon P, et al. 2017. Methamphetamine use and dependence in vulnerable female populations. Curr Opin Psychiatry; 30(4):247-252.
• Kwiatkowski MA, et al. 2018. Cognitive outcomes in prenatal methamphetamine exposed children aged six to seven years. Compr Psychiatry; 80:24-33.
• Newport DJ, et al. 2016. Prenatal psychostimulant and antidepressant exposure and risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. J Clin Psychiatry; 77(11):1538-45.
• Nguyen D, et al. 2010. Intrauterine growth of infants exposed to prenatal methamphetamine: results from the infant development, environment, and lifestyle study. J Pediatr; 157(2):337-9.
• Ornoy A. 2018. Pharmacological treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during pregnancy and lactation. Pharm Res; 35:46.
• Pentecost R, et al. 2021. Scoping Review of the Associations Between Perinatal Substance Use and Perinatal Depression and Anxiety. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 50(4):382-391
• Pflügner A, et al. 2018. [Methamphetamine consumption during pregnancy and its effects on neonates]. Klin Padiatr; 230(1):31-38.
• Pierce SL, et al. 2019. Methamphetamine-associated cardiomyopathy in pregnancy. Mayo Clinic Proc 94(3):551-554.
• Roussotte FF, et al. 2012. Frontostriatal connectivity in children during working memory and the effects of prenatal methamphetamine, alcohol, and polydrug exposure. Dev Neurosci; 34(1):43-57.
• Sanjari Moghaddam H, et al. 2021. Effects of Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure on the Developing Human Brain: A Systematic Review of Neuroimaging Studies. ACS Chem Neurosci. 4;12(15):2729-2748.
• Sankaran, D, et al. 2021. Methamphetamine: burden, mechanism and impact on pregnancy, the fetus, and newborn. J Perinatol.
• Shah R, et al. 2012. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and short-term maternal and infant medical outcomes. Am J Perinatol; 29(5):391-400.
• Smid MC, et al. 2019. Stimulant use in pregnancy: An under-recognized epidemic among pregnant women. Clin Obstet Gynecol; 62(1):168-184.
• Smith LM, et al. 2003. Effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure on fetal growth and drug withdrawal symptoms in infants born at term. J Dev Behav Pediatr 24(1):17-23.
• Smith LM, et al. 2006. The infant development, environment, and lifestyle study: effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure, polydrug exposure, and poverty on intrauterine growth. Pediatrics; 118(3):1149-56.
• Smith LM, et al. 2008. Prenatal methamphetamine use and neonatal neurobehavioral outcome. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 30(1):20-28.
• Smith LM, et al. 2011. Motor and cognitive outcomes through three years of age in children exposed to prenatal methamphetamine. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 33(1):176-84.
• Stewart JL, Meeker JE. 1997. Fetal and infant deaths associated with maternal methamphetamine abuse. J Anal Toxicol; 21(6):515-7.
• Twomey J, et al. 2013. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure, home environment, and primary caregiver risk factors predict child behavioral problems at 5 years. The American journal of orthopsychiatry; 83(1):64-72.
• Wouldes TA, et al. 2014. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children from 1 to 3 years. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 42:77-84.
• Wouldes TA, Lester BM. 2023. Opioid, methamphetamine, and polysubstance use: perinatal outcomes for the mother and infant. Front Pediatr. 1:1305508. doi: 10.3389/fped.2023.1305508. PMID: 38250592; PMCID: PMC10798256.
• Wright TE, et al. 2015. Methamphetamines and pregnancy outcomes. J Addict Med; 9(2):111-7.

Selected References:

• Abolhassani N. 2023. Major malformations risk following early pregnancy exposure to metformin: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open Diab Res Care: 11(1).
• Brand KM. 2022. Metformin in pregnancy and risk of adverse long-term outcomes: a register-based cohort study. BMJ Open Diab Res Care 10(1): e002363.
• Brand KM. 2022. Metformin in pregnancy and risk of abnormal growth outcomes at birth: a register-based cohort study. BMJ Open Diab Res Care: 10(6), e003056.
• Briggs GG, et al. 2005. Excretion of metformin into breast milk and the effect on nursing infants. Obstet Gynecol 105(6):1437-41.
• Cassina M, et al. 2014. First-trimester exposure to metformin and risk of birth defects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update. 20(5):656-69.
• Coetzee EJ, et al. 1980. Pregnancy in established non- insulin-dependent diabetics: A five-and-a-half year study at Groote Schuur Hospital. S Afr Med J 58:795-802.
• Coetzee EJ, et al. 1984. Oral hypoglycaemics in the first trimester and fetal outcome. S Afr Med J. 65:635-7.
• Dhulkotia JS, et al. 2010. Oral hypoglycemic agents vs insulin in management of gestational diabetes: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 203(5):457.e1-9.
• Diav-Citrin O, et al. 2018. In-utero exposure to metformin for type 2 diabetes or polycystic ovary syndrome: A prospective comparative observational study. Reprod Toxicol. 80:85-91.
• Feig DS, et al. 2007. Oral antidabetic agents in pregnancy & lactation: a paradigm shift? Ann Pharmacother 41:1174-80.
• Feig DS et al. 2023. Outcomes in children of women with type 2 diabetes exposed to metformin versus placebo during pregnancy (MiTy Kids): a 24-month follow-up of the MiTy randomised controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 11(3):191–202.
• Fornes R, et al. 2022. Pregnancy, perinatal and childhood outcomes in women with and without polycystic ovary syndrome and metformin during pregnancy: a nationwide population-based study. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 20(1): 1-12.
• Gardiner SJ, et al. 2003. Transfer of metformin into human milk. Clin Pharmacol Ther 73:71-7.
• Ghazeeri G, et al. 2012. Pregnancy outcomes and effect of metformin treatment in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: an overview. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 91:658–678.
• Gilbert C, et al. 2006. Pregnancy outcome after first-trimester exposure of metformin: a meta-analysis. Fertil Steril 86:658-63.
• Glueck CJ, et al. 2001. Continuing metformin throughout pregnancy in women with polycystic ovary syndrome appears to safely reduce first-trimester spontaneous abortion: a pilot study. Fertil Steril 75:46-52.
• Glueck CJ, et al. 2002. Pregnancy outcomes among women with polycystic ovary syndrome treated with metformin. Hum Reprod 17:2858-64.
• Glueck CJ et al. 2004. Height, weight, and motor-social development during the first 18 months of life in 126 infants born to 109 mothers with polycystic ovary syndrome who conceived on and continued metformin through pregnancy. Hum Reprod 19:1323-30.
• Glueck CJ et al. 2006. Growth, motor, and social development in breast- and formula-fed infants of metformin-treated women with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Pediatr 148:628-32.
• Glueck CJ et al. 2008. Prevention of gestational diabetes by metformin plus diet in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertil Steril 89:625-634.
• Glueck CJ et al. 2013. Effects of metformin-diet intervention before and throughout pregnancy on obstetric and neonatal outcomes in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Current Med Res and Op. 29(1): 55-62.
• Greger HK et al. 2020. Cognitive function in metformin exposed children, born to mothers with PCOS-follow-up of an RCT. BMC Pediatrics 20:60.
• Ismail B, et al. 2019. Assessment of the fetal myocardial performance index in well‐controlled gestational diabetics & to determine whether it is predictive of adverse perinatal outcome. Pediatric Cardiology. 40:1460–1467.
• Jakubowicz D. 2002. Effects of Metformin on Early Pregnancy Loss in the Polycystic Ovary Syndrome, J of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 87(2): 524-529.
• Meek CL. 2023. An unwelcome inheritance: childhood obesity after diabetes in pregnancy. Diabetologia, 66(11), 1961-1970.
• Newman C. 2022. Metformin for pregnancy and beyond: the pros and cons. Diabetic Medicine 39(3): e14700.
• Panchaud A, et al. 2018. Pregnancy outcomes in women on metformin for diabetes or other indications among those seeking teratology information services. Br J Clin Pharmacol 84(3): 568-578.
• Picon-Cesar MJ, et al 2021. Metformin for gestational diabetes study: metformin vs insulin in gestational diabetes: glycemic control and obstetrical and perinatal outcomes: randomized prospective trial. Am J Obstet Gyneol 225”517.e1-17.
• Rotem RS, et al. 2024. Paternal Use of Metformin During the Sperm Development Period Preceding Conception and Risk for Major Congenital Malformations in Newborns. Ann Intern Med. doi: 10.7326/M23-1405.
• Tarry-Adkins J, et al. 2019. Neonatal, infant, and childhood growth following metform versus insulin treatment for gestational diabetes: A systemic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Medicine 16(8): e1002848.
• Tavlo M, et al. 2022. Hypothesis: Metformin is a potential reproductive toxicant. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 13: 2660.
• Tosti G, et al. 2023. Lights and shadows on the use of metformin in pregnancy: from the preconception phase to breastfeeding and beyond. Frontiers in Endocrinology 14: 1176623.
• Tseng CH. 2022. The effect of metformin on male reproductive function and prostate: An updated review. The World Journal of Men’s Health 40(1): 11.
• Wensink MJ, Lu Y, Tian L, et al. Preconception Antidiabetic Drugs in Men and Birth Defects in Offspring : A Nationwide Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. 2022;175(5):665-673.
• Wouldes TA, et al. 2016 Neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years in offspring of women randomised to metformin or insulin treatment for gestational diabetes. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 101(6):F488-F493.

Selected References:

• Anderson KN et al. 2020. ADHD medication use during pregnancy and risk for selected birth defects: National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1998-2011. J Atten Dis. 24(3):479-489
• Bang Madsen K et al. 2023. In utero exposure to ADHD medication and long-term offspring outcomes. Mol Psychiatry 28(4):1739-1746.
• Cohen JM et al. 2017. Placental complications associated with psychostimulant use in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 130(6):1192-201.
• Eriksson M et al. 1981. Amphetamine addiction and pregnancy II. Pregnancy, delivery, and the neonatal period. Socio-medical aspects. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 60:253-259.
• Food and Drug Administration. 2017. Adderall® CII. 2017. Accessed from https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/011522s043lbl.pdf.
• Food and Drug Administration. 2013. Highlights of Prescribing Information – Adderall XR. Accessed from https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2013/021303s026lbl.pdf.
• Garey JD, et al. 2020. Teratogen update: Amphetamines. Birth Defects Res. 112(15):1171-1182.
• Huybrechts KF et al. 2018. Association Between Methylphenidate and Amphetamine Use in Pregnancy and Risk of Congenital Malformations: A Cohort Study From the International Pregnancy Safety Study Consortium. JAMA Psychiatry. 75(2):167-175.
• Newport DJ et al. 2016. Prenatal psychostimulant and antidepressant exposure and risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. J Clin Psychiatry. 77(11):1538-45.
• Norby U et al. 2017. Perinatal outcomes after treatment with ADHD medication during pregnancy. Pediatrics 140(6).
• Öhman I et al. 2015. Narcolepsy treated with racemic amphetamine during pregnancy and breastfeeding. J Hum Lact 31:374-6.
• Poulton AS et al. 2018. Perinatal outcomes of women diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: An Australian population-based cohort study. CNS Drugs 32(4):377-386.
• Rose SJ et al. 2020. Amphetamine-dextroamphetamine and pregnancy: neonatal outcomes after prenatal prescription mixed amphetamine exposure. J Attention Dis. 25(9): 1295-1301.Steiner E et al. 1984. Amphetamine secretion in breast milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 27:123-4.