Selected References:

• Carmichael SL, et al. 2007. Maternal corticosteroid use & orofacial clefts. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 197(6):585.e1-585.e7.  
• Constantinescu S, et al. 2014. Breast-feeding after transplantation. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol; 28(8):1163-1173.  
• Fitzsimons R, et al. 1986. Outcome of pregnancy in women requiring corticosteroids for severe asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol; 78(2):349-353.  
• Florentien D, et al. 2023. Does prednisone use in pregnant women with rheumatoid arthritis induce insulin resistance in the offspring? Clin Rheumatol; 42(1):47-54. 
• Gomaa MF, et al. 2014. Combined oral prednisolone and heparin versus heparin: the effect on peripheral NK cells and clinical outcome in patients with unexplained recurrent miscarriage. A double-blind placebo randomized controlled trial. Arch Gynecol Obstet; 290:757–762. 
• Gur C, et al. 2004. Pregnancy outcome after first trimester exposure to corticosteroids: a prospective controlled study. Reprod Toxicol; 18(1):93-101. 
• Hendry WF, et al. 1990. Comparison of prednisolone and placebo in subfertile men with antibodies to spermatozoa. Lancet; 335:85-88. 
• Ito S, et al. 1993. Prospective follow-up of adverse reactions in breast-fed infants exposed to maternal medication. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 168:1393-1399. 
• Liauw J, 2025. Antenatal Corticosteroids and Child Neurodevelopment: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Obstetrics and gynecology; 146(3), 360–376. 
• Ma N, et al. 2022. Oral immunosuppressants improve pregnancy outcomes in women with idiopathic recurrent miscarriage: A meta-analysis. J Clin Pharm Ther; 47:870–878.  
• Man YA, et al. 2009. Association of higher rheumatoid arthritis disease activity during pregnancy with lower birth weight: results of a national prospective study. Arthritis Rheum; 60(11):3196-3206.  
• Marzec I, et al. 2021. Pregnancy after liver transplant: maternal and perinatal outcomes. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth; 21: 627.  
• McGuire E. 2012. Sudden loss of milk supply following high-dose triamcinolone (Kenacort) injection. Breastfeed Rev; 20:32–34. 
• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 2024. Prednisolone. Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed).  
• Nørgård B, et al. 2007. Therapeutic drug use in women with Crohn’s disease and birth outcomes: a Danish nationwide cohort study. Am J Gastroenterol; 102:1406-1413.  Nyberg
• G, et al. 1998. Breast-feeding during treatment with cyclosporine. Transplantation; 65:253-255. 
• Ost L, et al. 1985. Prednisolone excretion in human milk. J Pediatr; 106:1008-1011.  
• Palmsten K, et al. 2020. Oral corticosteroid use during pregnancy and risk of preterm birth. Rheumatology (Oxford); 59(6):1262-1271. 
• Park-Wyllie L, et al. 2000. Birth defects after maternal exposure to corticosteroids: prospective cohort study and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Teratology; 62(6):385-392.  
• Petri M, et al. 1992. The Hopkins Lupus Pregnancy Center: 1987-1991 update. Am J Reprod Immunol; 28(3-4):188-191.  
• Pradat P, et al. 2003. First trimester exposure to corticosteroids & oral clefts. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol; 67(12):968-970.  
• Rodríguez-Pinilla E & Martínez-Frías ML. 1998. Corticosteroids during pregnancy & oral clefts: a case-control study. Teratology; 58(1):2-5. 
• Ryu RJ, et al. 2018. Prednisone pharmacokinetics during pregnancy & lactation. J Clin Pharmacol; 58(9):1223-1232. 
• Silver RK, et al. 1993. Comparative trial of prednisone plus aspirin versus aspirin alone in the treatment of anticardiolipin antibody – positive obstetrics patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 169(6):1411-1417.  
• Skuladottir H, et al. 2014. Corticosteroid use and risk of orofacial clefts. Birth Defects Res (Part A); 100: 499-506. 
• Slob E, et al. 2023. Safety of antenatal predniso(lo)ne and dexamethasone on fetal, neonatal and childhood outcomes: a systematic review. The J of Clin Endocr & Metab; 109(4):e1328-e1335.  
• Tata LJ, et al. 2008. Effects of maternal asthma, exacerbations and asthma medication use on congenital malformations in offspring: a UK population-based study. Thorax; 63(11):981-987. 
• Van Zutphen AR, et al, National Birth Defects Prevention Study. 2015. Maternal asthma medication use during pregnancy and risk of congenital heart defects. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol; 103(11):951-961. 
• Viktil KK, et al. 2012. Outcomes after anti-rheumatic drug use before and during pregnancy: a cohort study among 150,000 pregnant women and expectant fathers. Scand J Rheumatol; 41(3):196-2012.  
• Xu L, et al. 2009. The influence of immunosuppressants on the fertility of males who undergo renal transplantation and on the immune function of their offspring. Transpl Immunol; 22(1-2):28-31

Selected References:

• Alano MA, et al. 2001.  Analysis of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in meconium and its relation to persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Pediatrics; 107:519-523. 
• Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. (n.d.). NSAIDs may cause rare kidney problems in unborn babies. Retrieved October 16, 2020, from https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-recommends-avoiding-use-nsaids-pregnancy-20-weeks-or-later-because-they-can-result-low-amniotic  
• Chen X, et al.  2024. Pregnancy outcomes and birth defects in offspring following non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs exposure during pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Reproductive Toxicology; 125, 108561. 
• Choi EY, et al. 2023. Neonatal and maternal adverse outcomes and exposure to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during early pregnancy in South Korea: A nationwide cohort study, PLoS Med; 20(2):1-19. 
• Delker E, et al. 2023. Associations of prenatal exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with preterm birth and small for gestational age infants among women with autoimmune disorders, Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf; 32:225–237. 
• Ericson A & Kallen BA. 2001. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in early pregnancy. Reproductive Toxicology; 15:371-375. 
• Esposito DB, et al. 2021. Periconceptional nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use, folic acid intake, and the risk of spina bifida. Birth Defects Res; 113(17):1257-1266.  
• Hernandez RK, et al. 2012. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug use among women and the risk of birth defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 206(3):228.e1-8.   
• Hultzsch S, et al. 2021. First trimester naproxen exposure and outcome of pregnancy – a German case series. Reprod Toxicol; 103:51-57.  
• Ito S, et al. 1993. Prospective follow-up of adverse reactions in breast-fed infants exposed to maternal medication. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 168(5):1393-1399. 
• Janssen NM & Genta MS. 2000. The effects of immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory medications on fertility, pregnancy, and lactation. Arch Intern Med; 160(5):610-619. 
• Kabir Chowdhury MA, et al. 2023. Relationship of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use during pregnancy with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability among offspring. Journal of Women’s Health;32(3):356-365. 
• Kallen BA. 2003. Maternal drug use and infant cleft lip/palate with special reference to corticoids. Cleft Palate Craniofac J; 40(6):624-628. 
• Kallen BA & Olausson PO. 2003. Maternal drug use in early pregnancy and infant cardiovascular defect. Reprod Toxicol; 17(3):255-261. 
• Koren G et al. 2006. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs during third trimester and the risk of premature closure of the ductus arteriosus: a meta-analysis. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy; 40:824-829. 
• Malm H & Borish C. 2015. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and antirheumatic drugs. In C Schaefer, P Peters, R Miller (Eds.), Drugs During Pregnancy and Lactation: Treatment Options and Risk Assessment, 3rd ed. P. 41-45. London: Elsevier.  
• Markovic M, et al. 2019. Prenatal exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety; 28(4):452-459. 
• McInerney KA, et al. 2017. Preconception use of pain-relievers and time-to-pregnancy: a prospective cohort study. Hum Reprod; 32(1):103-111.  
• Nakhai-Pour HR, et al. 2011. Use of nonaspirin nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and the risk of spontaneous abortion. CMAJ; 183(15):1713-1720.  
• Nielsen GL, et al. 2001. Risk of adverse birth outcome and miscarriage in pregnant users of non-steroidal anti inflammatory drugs: population based observational study and case control study. BMJ; 322(7281):266-270. 
• Li D, et al. 2003. Exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and risk of miscarriage: population based cohort study. BMJ; 327:1-5.  
• Li DK, et al. 2018. Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and the risk of miscarriage. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 219(3):275.e1-275.e8.  
• Ofori B, et al. 2006. Risk of congenital anomalies in pregnant users of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: a nested case-control study. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol; 77(4):268-279. 
• Ostensen M & Ostensen H. 1996. Safety of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in pregnant patients with rheumatic disease. J Rheumatol; 23(6):1045-1049. 
• Spencer JP, et al. 2001. Medications in the breast-feeding mother. Am Fam Physician; 64(1):119-127. 
• Tanaka S, et al. 2016. Prediction of fetal ductus arteriosus constriction by systemic and local dermatological formulations of NSAIDs based on PK/PD analysis. In J Clin Pharmacol Ther; 54(10):782-794.   

Selected References:

• Ahlqvist VH, et al. 2024. Acetaminophen Use During Pregnancy and Children’s Risk of Autism, ADHD, and Intellectual Disability. JAMA, 331(14):1205–1214. 
• Alwan S, et al. 2022. Paracetamol use in pregnancy – caution over causal inference from available data. Nat Rev Endocrinol, 18(3):190. 
• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2025. Acetaminophen Use in Pregnancy and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes. Practice Advisory, ACOG. https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/practice-advisory/articles/2025/09/acetaminophen-use-in-pregnancy-and-neurodevelopmental-outcomes 
• Andrade C. 2016. Use of acetaminophen (paracetamol) during pregnancy and the risk of autism spectrum disorder in the offspring. J Clin Psychiatry; 77(2):e152-4. Arneja J, et al. 2020. Association between maternal acetaminophen use and adverse birth outcomes in a pregnancy and birth cohort. Pediatr Res; 87(7):1263-1269.
• Aselton P, et al. 1985. First-trimester drug use and congenital disorders. Obstet Gynecol 65:451-5. 
• Aw M, et al. 1999. Neonatal paracetamol poisoning. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed; 81(1):F78. 
• Baker BH, et al. 2020. Association of Prenatal Acetaminophen Exposure Measured in Meconium With Risk of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Mediated by Frontoparietal Network Brain Connectivity. JAMA pediatrics, 174(11):1073–1081. 
• Bauer AZ, et al. 2018. Prenatal paracetamol exposure and child neurodevelopment: A review. Hormones Behav 101:125-147. 
• Baur AZ, et al. 2021. Paracetamol use during pregnancy – a call for precautionary action. Nat Rev Endocrinol, 17(12):757-766. 
• Bornehag CG, et al. 2018. Prenatal exposure to acetaminophen and children’s language development at 30 months. Eur Psychiatry, in press. 
• Bornehag CG, et al. 2018. Reply to: Shukla et al., Commentary on: Prenatal exposure to acetaminophen and children’s language development at 30 months. Eur Psychiatry 51:86. 
• Brandlistuen RE, et al. 2013. Prenatal paracetamol exposure and child neurodevelopment: a sibling-controlled cohort study. Int J Epidemiol; 42(6):1702-13. 
• Castro CT, et al. 2022. Effect of Acetaminophen use during pregnancy on adverse pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Expert Opin Drug Saf, 21(2):241-251.
• D’Antonio F, et al. 2026. Prenatal paracetamol exposure and child neurodevelopment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Obstetrics, Gynaecology, & Women’s Health; 2, e190-e198.
• Damker P, et al. 2022. Handle with care – interpretation, synthesis and dissemination of data on paracetamol in pregnancy. Nat Rev Endocrinol, 18:191. 
• Damkier P, et al. 2025. Acetaminophen in Pregnancy and Attention-Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 145(2):168–176. 
• Feldkamp ML, et al. 2010. Acetaminophen use in pregnancy and risk of birth defects. Obstet Gynecol; 
• Golding J, et al. 2020. Associations between paracetamol (acetaminophen) intake between 18 and 32 weeks gestation and neurocognitive outcomes in the child: A longitudinal cohort study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol; 34(3):257-266. 
• Harvard Health Publishing. 2017. Acetaminophen safety: Be cautious but not afraid. https://www.health.harvard.edu/pain/acetaminophen-safety-be-cautious-but-not-afraid [Accessed 5/18]115(1):109-15. 
• Jick H, et al. 1981. First-trimester drug use and congenital disorders. JAMA; 246(4):343-6.  
• Li DK, et al. 2003. Exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and risk of miscarriage: population-based cohort study. BMJ, 327(7411):368. doi: 10.1136/bmj.327.7411.368. 
• Li D, et al. 2018. Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and risk of miscarriage. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 219(3):275.e1-275e8. 
• Kang EM, et al. 2009. Prenatal exposure to acetaminophen and asthma in children. Obstet Gynecol; 114 (6):1295-1306. 
• Liew Z, et al. 2019. Use of negative control exposure analysis to evaluate confounding: An example of acetaminophen exposure and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Nurses’ Health Study II. Am J Epidemiol 188(4): 768-775. 
• Liew Z, et al. 2014. Acetaminophen use during pregnancy, behavioral problems, and hyperkinetic disorders. JAMA Pediatr;168(4):313-20. 
• Marsh CA, et al. 2014. Case-control analysis of maternal prenatal analgesic use and cardiovascular malformations: Baltimore-Washington Infant Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 211(4):404.e1-9. 
• McElhatton PR, et al. 1997. Paracetamol overdose in pregnancy analysis of the outcomes of 300 cases referred to the Teratology Information Service. Reprod Toxicol; 11(1):85-94. 
• Niederhoff H and Zahradnik HP 1983. Analgesics during pregnancy. Am J Med; 75:117-120. 
• Ricci C et al. 2023. In utero acetaminophen exposure and child neurodevelopmental outcomes: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Paediatric and perinatal epidemiology, 37(5):473–484.  
• Riggs BS, et al. 1989. Acute acetaminophen overdose during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol; 74(2):247-53. 
• Rosevear SK and Hope PL. 1989. Favourable neonatal outcome following maternal paracetamol overdose and severe fetal distress. Case report. Br J Obstet Gynaecol; 96(4):491-3. 
• Smarr MM, et al. 2016. Urinary paracetamol and time-to-pregnancy. Hum Reprod, 31(9):2119–2127.  
• Wesselink AK, et al. 2020. Association Between Male Use of Pain Medication and Fecundability. Am J Epidemiol, 189(11):1348–1359. 
• Zafeiri A, et al. 2022. Maternal over-the-counter analgesics use during pregnancy and adverse perinatal outcomes: cohort study of 151,141 singleton pregnancies. BMJ Open, 12:e048092. 

Selected References:

• ACOG Committee on Health Care for Underserved Women. 2011 (reaffirmed 2021). Committee Opinion No. 479: Methamphetamine abuse in women of reproductive age. Obstet Gynecol; 117:751-5. 
• Ajayi AF et al. 2020.  The physiology of male reproduction: Impact of drugs and their abuse on male fertility. Andrologia; 52(9): e13672. 
• Brecht ML, Herbeck DM. 2014. Pregnancy and fetal loss reported by methamphetamine-using women. Subst Abuse; 8:25-33.  
• Chang L, et al. 2004. Smaller subcortical volumes and cognitive deficits in children with prenatal methamphetamine exposure. Psych Res:Neuroimaging; 132:95-106.  
• Chomchai C, et al. 2016. Transfer of methamphetamine (MA) into breast milk and urine of postpartum women who smoked MA tablets during pregnancy: Implications for initiation of breastfeeding. J Hum Lact; 32:333-9. 
• Chu EK, et al. 2020. Behavior Problems During Early Childhood in Children With Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure. Pediatrics; 146(6):e20190270. 
• Cohen JM, et al. 2017. Placental complications associated with psychostimulant use in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol; 130(6):1192-201. 
• Courtney KE, Ray LA. 2014. Methamphetamine: an update on epidemiology, pharmacology, clinical phenomenology, and treatment literature. Drug Alcohol Depend; 1;143:11-21.  
• Derauf C, et al. 2012. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and inhibitory control among young school-age children. J Pediatr; 161(3):452-9. 
• Dinger J, et al. 2017. Methamphetamine consumption during pregnancy – effects on child health. Pharmacopsychiatry; 50(3):107-113.  
• Dyk Jv, et al. 2014. Maternal methamphetamine use in pregnancy and long-term neurodevelopmental and behavioral deficits in children. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol; 21(2):e185-96. 
• Eriksson M, et al. 1981. Amphetamine addiction and pregnancy II. Pregnancy, delivery and the neonatal period. Socio-medical aspects. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand; 60:253-259, 1981. 
• Garey JD, et al. 2020 Teratogen update: Amphetamines. Birth Defects Res; 112(15):1171-1182.  
• Golub M, et al. 2005. NTP CERHR Expert Panel Report on the reproductive and developmental toxicity of amphetamine and methamphetamine. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol; 74(6):471-584.  
• Good MM, et al. 2010. Methamphetamine use during pregnancy: maternal and neonatal implications. Obstet Gynecol; 116(2 Pt 1):330-4. 
• Gorman MC, et al. 2014. Outcomes in pregnancies complicated by methamphetamine use. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 211(4):429.e1-7. 
• Hamed M, et al. 2023. Psychoactive drugs and male fertility: impacts and mechanisms. Reprod Biol Endocrinol; 21,69. 
• Harst L, et al. 2021. Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure: Effects on Child Development–A Systematic Review. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 7;118(18):313-319 
• Hayer S, et al. 2024. Prenatal methamphetamine use increases risk of adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology; 231(3),356.e1–356.e15.  
• Heinonen OP, et al. 1977. Birth Defects and Drugs in Pregnancy. Littleton, MA: John Wright-PSG, pp 346-347, 439.  
• LaGasse LL, et al. 2011. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and neonatal neurobehavioral outcome in the USA and New Zealand. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 33(1):166-75. 
• LaGasse LL, et al. 2012. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and childhood behavior at 3 and 5 years of age. Pediatrics; 129(4):681-688. 
• Little BB, et al. 1988. Methamphetamine abuse during pregnancy: outcome and fetal effects. Obstet Gynecol; 72:541-4. 
• Kalaitzopoulos DR, et al. 2018. Effect of methamphetamine hydrochloride on pregnancy outcome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Addict Med;. 12(3):220-226. 
• Kittirattanapaiboon P, et al. 2017. Methamphetamine use and dependence in vulnerable female populations. Curr Opin Psychiatry; 30(4):247-252. 
• Kwiatkowski MA, et al. 2018. Cognitive outcomes in prenatal methamphetamine exposed children aged six to seven years. Compr Psychiatry; 80:24-33. 
• Newport DJ, et al. 2016. Prenatal psychostimulant and antidepressant exposure and risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. J Clin Psychiatry; 77(11):1538-45. 
• Nguyen D, et al. 2010. Intrauterine growth of infants exposed to prenatal methamphetamine: results from the infant development, environment, and lifestyle study. J Pediatr; 157(2):337-9. 
• Ornoy A. 2018. Pharmacological treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during pregnancy and lactation. Pharm Res; 35:46. 
• Pentecost R, et al. 2021. Scoping Review of the Associations Between Perinatal Substance Use and Perinatal Depression and Anxiety. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs; 50(4):382-391 
• Pflügner A, et al. 2018. [Methamphetamine consumption during pregnancy and its effects on neonates]. Klin Padiatr; 230(1):31-38.  
• Pierce SL, et al. 2019. Methamphetamine-associated cardiomyopathy in pregnancy. Mayo Clinic Proc; 94(3):551-554.  
• Rastegar-Pouyani N, et al. 2025. Prenatal Exposure to Methamphetamine and Its Association With Birth Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis. Birth defects research; 117(7), e2488. 
• Roussotte FF, et al. 2012. Frontostriatal connectivity in children during working memory and the effects of prenatal methamphetamine, alcohol, and polydrug exposure. Dev Neurosci; 34(1):43-57. 
• Sanjari Moghaddam H, et al. 2021. Effects of Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure on the Developing Human Brain: A Systematic Review of Neuroimaging Studies. ACS Chem Neurosci.  4;12(15):2729-2748. 
• Sankaran, D, et al. 2021. Methamphetamine: burden, mechanism and impact on pregnancy, the fetus, and newborn. J Perinatol.  
• Shah R, et al. 2012. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and short-term maternal and infant medical outcomes. Am J Perinatol; 29(5):391-400. 
• Smid MC, et al. 2019. Stimulant use in pregnancy: An under-recognized epidemic among pregnant women. Clin Obstet Gynecol; 62(1):168-184. 
• Smith LM, et al. 2003. Effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure on fetal growth and drug withdrawal symptoms in infants born at term. J Dev Behav Pediatr; 24(1):17-23.  
• Smith LM, et al. 2006. The infant development, environment, and lifestyle study: effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure, polydrug exposure, and poverty on intrauterine growth. Pediatrics; 118(3):1149-56. 
• Smith LM, et al. 2008. Prenatal methamphetamine use and neonatal neurobehavioral outcome. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 30(1):20-28.  
• Smith LM, et al. 2011. Motor and cognitive outcomes through three years of age in children exposed to prenatal methamphetamine. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 33(1):176-84. 
• Stewart JL, Meeker JE. 1997. Fetal and infant deaths associated with maternal methamphetamine abuse. J Anal Toxicol; 21(6):515-7. 
• Twomey J, et al. 2013. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure, home environment, and primary caregiver risk factors predict child behavioral problems at 5 years. The American journal of orthopsychiatry; 83(1):64-72. 
• Wouldes TA, et al. 2014. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children from 1 to 3 years. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 42:77-84. 
• Wouldes TA, Lester BM. 2023. Opioid, methamphetamine, and polysubstance use: perinatal outcomes for the mother and infant. Front Pediatr. 1:1305508. 
• Wright TE, et al. 2015. Methamphetamines and pregnancy outcomes. J Addict Med; 9(2):111-7. 

Selected References:

• Ali, R, et al. 2022. Review of recent evidence on the management of heartburn in pregnant and breastfeeding women. BMC gastroenterology; 22.1: 1-10. 
• Anderka M, et al. 2012. National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Medications used to treat nausea and vomiting of pregnancy and the risk of selected birth defects. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol; 94:22-30. 
• Andersen ABT, et al. 2012. Prenatal exposure to acid-suppressive drugs and the risk of toddler asthma: a population-based Danish cohort study. Alim Pharmacol Ther; 35:1190-1198. 
• Anderson P. 2018. Treating gastroesophageal reflux and heartburn while breastfeeding. Breastfeed Med;13(7):463–4. 
• Bank, T, et al. 2024. Challenges in Conducting Clinical Trials for Preeclampsia. Curr Hypertens Rep 26, 59–68.  
• Bor S, et al. 2017. The levels of pantoprazole in human breast milk and plasma: two compartment model. Neurogastroenterol Motil; 29:79–80. 
• Dehlink E, et al. 2009. First evidence of a possible association between gastric acid suppression during pregnancy and childhood asthma: a population-based register study. Clin Exp Allergy 39:246-53. 
• Diav-Citrin O, et al. 2005. The safety of proton pump inhibitors in pregnancy: a multicentre prospective controlled study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther; 21:269-75. 
• Erichsen R, et al. 2014. Maternal use of proton pump inhibitors during early pregnancy and the prevalence of hypospadias in male offspring. Am J Ther; 21: 254-259.  
• Gill SK et al. 2009. The safety of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) in pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol; 104(6): 1541-1545.  
• Hastie R, et al. 2019. Proton pump inhibitors and preeclampsia risk among 157 720 women: a Swedish population register–based cohort study. Hypertension; 73(5):1097–103. 
• Huijgen NA. 2016. Are proton-pump inhibitors harmful for the semen quality of men in couples who are planning pregnancy? Fertility and Sterility, 106(7), 1666-1672. 
• Kallen B. 1998. Delivery outcome after the use of acid-suppressing drugs in early pregnancy with special reference to omeprazole. Br J Obstet Gynaecol; 105:877-881. 
• Kallen B. 2001. Use of omeprazole during pregnancy—no hazard demonstrated in 955 infants exposed during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol; 96:63-68. 
• Keihani, S. et al. 2018. Proton-pump inhibitor use does not affect semen quality in subfertile men. Asian journal of andrology, 20(3), 290. 
• Lalkin A, et al. 1998. The safety of omeprazole during pregnancy: a multicenter prospective controlled study. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 179(3 Pt 1): 727-730.  
• Li, C, et al. 2020. Systematic review with meta‐analysis: the risks of proton pump inhibitors during pregnancy. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics; 51.4: 410-420. 
• Mahadevan, Uma. 2007. “Gastrointestinal Medications in Pregnancy.” Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology; 21(5): 849–77. 
• Majithia, R., & Johnson, D. A. (2012). Are Proton Pump Inhibitors Safe during Pregnancy and Lactation? 10. 
• Marshall JK, et al. 1998. Omeprazole for refractory gastroesophageal reflux disease during pregnancy and lactation. Can J Gastroenterol; 12: 225-227.  
• Matok I, et al. 2012. The safety of fetal exposure to proton-pump inhibitors during pregnancy. Dig Dis Sci; 57:699-705. 
• Mills K, et al. 2024. The effects of proton pump inhibitors during pregnancy on treatment of preeclampsia and related outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM; 6(10):101478.  
• Mumtaz, N, et al. 2022. Harmful Consequences of Proton Pump Inhibitors on Male Fertility: An Evidence from Subchronic Toxicity Study of Esomeprazole and Lansoprazole in Wistar Rats. International Journal of Endocrinology; 2022:4479261. 
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• Neuman R, et al. 2022. Omeprazole Administration in Preterm Preeclampsia: a Randomized Controlled Trial to Study Its Effect on sFlt-1 (Soluble Fms-Like Tyrosine Kinase-1), PlGF (Placental Growth Factor), and ET-1 (Endothelin-1). Hypertension; 79(6):1297-1307.  
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