Selected References:

• Bailey DN, Briggs JR. 2002. Carisoprodol: an unrecognized drug of abuse. Am J Clin Pathol. 117(3):396-400. \
• Briggs GG, et al. 2008. High dose carisoprodol during pregnancy and lactation. Ann Pharmacother. 42(6):898-901. 
• Grizzle TB, et al. 1995. Carisoprodol: reproductive assessment by continuous breeding in Swiss mice. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 24(1):132-139. 
• Heinonen OP, et al. 1977. Birth defects and drugs in pregnancy. Littleton, MA: Publishing Sciences Group. 357-65. 
• Nordeng H, et al. 2001. Transfer of carisoprodol to breast milk. Ther Drug Monit. 23:298-300. 
• Nostrum Laboratories. 2021. Carisoprodol prescribing information. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/fda/fdaDrugXsl.cfm?setid=ab22f1be-16c8-45b6-adaf-09e08bf7a545&type=display. Accessed 10 August 2026. 
• Prescribing Label for Soma. 2019. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=6297cf20-830a-11dc-94c8-0002a5d5c51b. Accessed 10 August 2026. 

Selected References

• Balevic SJ, et al. 2024. Abatacept Pharmacokinetics and Exposure Response in Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19: A Secondary Analysis of the ACTIV-1 IM Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open. 7(4):e247615.  
• Bhimraj A, et al. 2025. 2025 Clinical Practice Guideline Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America on the Treatment and Management of COVID-19: Pemivibart for Pre-exposure Prophylaxis, Vilobelimab for Critical Illness, and Abatacept or Infliximab for Severe or Critical Illness. Clin Infect Dis. 81(Supplement_3):i1-i5.  
• Chin A, et al. 2025. Recommendations for the Use of Disease-Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs in Pregnancy and Reproductive Health for Patients With Rheumatic Disease: A Scoping Review. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 77(10):1273-1281.  
• Dernoncourt A, et al. 2023. Fetal and neonatal adverse drug reactions associated with biologics taken during pregnancy by women with autoimmune diseases: Insights from an analysis of the World Health Organization pharmacovigilance database (VigiBase®). BioDrugs. 37(1):73-87. 
• E.R. Squibb and Sons, L.L.C. (Last updated: October 30, 2023). Orencia drug label. Source: National Library of Medicine. Available at https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/druginfo.cfm?setid=0836c6ac-ee37-5640-2fed-a3185a0b16eb. Accessed 31 July 2026. 
• Ghalandari N, et al. 2022. Reported congenital malformations after exposure to non-tumour necrosis factor inhibitor biologics: A retrospective comparative study in EudraVigilance. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 88(12):5378-5388.  
• Kumar M, et al. 2015. Pregnancy outcomes following exposure to abatacept during pregnancy. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 45(3):351-356. 
• Makol A, et al. 2011. Rheumatoid arthritis and pregnancy: safety considerations in pharmacological management. Drugs. 71(15):1973-1987. 
• Nadig N, et al. 2025. 2025 Clinical Practice Guideline Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America on the Treatment and Management of COVID-19: Abatacept. Clin Infect Dis. 81(Supplement_3):i17-i21.  
• Ojeda-Uribe M, et al. 2013. Exposure to abatacept or rituximab in the first trimester of pregnancy in three women with autoimmune diseases. Clin Rheumatol. 32(5):695-700. 
• Ostensen M, Förger F. 2011. Treatment with biologics of pregnant patients with rheumatic diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 23(3):293-298. 
• Partlett R, Roussou E. 2011. The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis during pregnancy. Rheumatol Int. 31(4):445-449. 
• Pham T, et al. 2012. Abatacept therapy and safety management. Joint Bone Spine. 79 Suppl 1:3-84.  
• Saito J, et al. 2019. Abatacept concentrations in maternal serum and breast milk during breastfeeding and an infant safety assessment: a case study. Rheumatology (Oxford). 58(9):1692-1694. 

Selected References:

• Amir LH, et al. 2006. A case-control study of mastitis: nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Family Practice; 7:57.  
• Behari P, et al. 2004. Transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus to preterm infants through breast milk. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol; 25(9):778-780.  
• Briggs G. 2005. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation, a reference guide to fetal and neonatal risk. 7th Ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Williams.  
• De Rose, et al. 2023. Staphylococcal infections and neonatal skin: data from literature and suggestions for the clinical management from four challenging patients. Antibiotics; 12(4):632. 
• Elston DM. 2007. Community acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Am Acad Dermatol; 56(1):1-16.  
• Farsimadan M, Motamedifar M. 2020. Bacterial infection of the male reproductive system causing infertility. J Reprod Immunol; 142:103183.  
• Frank A, et al. 1999. Community-acquired and clindamycin-susceptible methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in children. Ped Inf Dis J; 18:993-1000.  
• Gastelum DT, et al. 2005. Transmission of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from breast milk in the neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatr Infect Dis J; 24(12):1122-1124. 2  
• Goto H, et al. 2003. Susceptibilities of bacteria isolated from patients with lower respiratory infectious diseases to antibiotics. Jpn J Antibiot. 58(3):326-58.  
• Inukai K, et al. 2025. Infective endocarditis caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis in the infant of a mother with diabetes: a case report. Tokai J Exp Clin Med; 50(1): 21-24. 
• Kawada M, et al. 2003. Transmission of Staphylococcus aureus between healthy, lactating mothers and their infants by breastfeeding. J Hum Lact; 19(4):411- 417.  
• Kriebs JM. 2016. Staphylococcus Infections in Pregnancy: Maternal and Neonatal Risks. J Perinat Neonatal Nurs; 30(2):115-23. 
• Laibl V, et al. 2005. Clinical Presentation of Community-Acquired Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol; 106 (3):461- 5.  
• Leshem E et al. 2012. Transmission of Staphylococcus aureus from mothers to newborns. Pediatr Infect Dis J; 31(4):360-3.  
• Lazenby GB, et al. 2012. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization among women admitted for preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 206(4):329.e1-5. 
• Maglio D, et al. 2005. Simulation of antibiotic pharmacodynamic exposure for the empiric treatment of nosocomial bloodstream infections: a report from the OPTAMA program. Clin Ther; 27(7):1032-42.  
• Piva S, Mariella J, et al 2021. Epidemiologic case investigation on the zoonotic transmission of Staphylococcus aureus infection from goat to veterinarians. Zoonoses Public Health; 68(6):684-690. 
• Price M, et al. 1998. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a dermatology outpatient population. South Med J; 91:369-71.  
• Salmanov AG, et al. 2021. Bacterial infection causes of pregnancy loss and premature birth in the women in Ukraine. Wiad Lek; 74(6):1355-1359.  
• Saravolatz L, et al. 1982. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: epidemiologic observations during a community-acquired outbreak. Ann Intern Med; 96:11-16.  
• Sheffield JS. 2013. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in obstetrics. Am J Perinatol; 30(2):125-9. 
• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2024. About Staph food poisoning. https://www.cdc.gov/staph-food-poisoning/about/index.html [Accessed 4/2026]. 
• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2026. Preventing Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Prevent MRSA in higher risk settings. https://www.cdc.gov/mrsa/prevention/index.html#cdc_prevention_when_traveling-prevent-mrsa-in-higher-risk-settings [Accessed 4/2026]. 
• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2024. Strategies to prevent hospital-onset Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections in acute care facilities. https://www.cdc.gov/staphylococcus-aureus/hcp/prevent-in-acute-care-facilities/index.html [Accessed 4/2026]. 
• Tong SY, et al. 2015. Staphylococcus aureus infections: epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management. Clin Microbiol Rev; 28(3):603-61.  
• Younger Meek, American Academy of Pediatrics, et al. 2022. Policy Statement: Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk. Pediatrics; 150(1):e2022057988. 

Selected References:

• Abraham K, 2021. Maternal and Perinatal Outcomes of Influenza in Pregnancy after Treatment with Oseltamivir. J Glob Infect Dis. 13(1):20-26. 
• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2018. Committee Opinion No. 753: Assessment and treatment of pregnant women with suspected or confirmed influenza. Obstet Gyn, 132(4):e169-e173. 
• Antiviral drugs for influenza for 2023-2024. 2023. Med Lett Drugs Ther. 65(1689):177-182. 
• Aoki FY, et al. 2013. The use of antiviral drugs for influenza: A foundation document for practitioners. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol, 24(Suppl C):1-15. 
• Beau A-B, et al. 2014. Safety of oseltamivir during pregnancy: a comparative study using the EFEMERIS database. BJOG; 121(7):895-900.  
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2011. Antiviral agents for the treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza. MMWR; 60(No. RR-1):1-25. 
• Chambers CD, et al, OTIS Collaborative Research Group. 2019. Oseltamivir use in pregnancy: Risk of birth defects, preterm delivery, and small for gestational age infants. Birth Defects Res; 111(19):1487-1493. 
• Chow EJ, et al. Clinical Effectiveness and Safety of Antivirals for Influenza in Pregnancy. Open Forum Infect Dis; 8(6):ofab138. 
• Cizeron A, et al. 2021. Low rate of oseltamivir prescription among adults and children with confirmed influenza illness in France during the 2018-19 influenza season. J Antimicrob Chemother; 76(4):1057-1062. 
• Dunstan H, et al. 2014. Pregnancy outcome following maternal use of zanamivir or oseltamivir during the 2009 influenza A/H1N1 pandemic: a national prospective surveillance study. BJOG; 121(7):901-906. 
• Fodor E, et al. 2023. An Observational Study on the Pharmacokinetics of Oseltamivir in Lactating Influenza Patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther; 115(2):318-323.  
• Graner S, et al. 2017. Neuraminidase inhibitors during pregnancy and risk of adverse neonatal outcomes and congenital malformations: population based European register study. BMJ; 356:j629. 
• Greer LG, et al. 2010. Maternal and neonatal outcomes after antepartum treatment of influenza with antiviral medications. Obstet Gynecol; 115(4):711-716.  
• Greer LG, et al. 2011. Pharmacokinetics of oseltamivir in breast milk and maternal plasma. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 204: 524.e1-4.  
• Laibl VR and Sheffield JS. 2005. Influenza and pneumonia in pregnancy. Clinics in Perinatology; 32:727-738.  
• Lian J, et al. 2022. Neonatal outcomes after neuraminidase inhibitor use during pregnancy: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Br J Clin Pharmacol; 88(3):911-918. 
• Mancilla-Galindo J, et al. 2021. All-cause mortality among patients treated with repurposed antivirals and antibiotics for COVID-19 in Mexico City: A real-world observational study. EXCLI J; 20:199-222. 
• Saito S, et al. 2013. Outcomes of infants exposed to oseltamivir or zanamivir in utero during pandemic (H1N1) 2009. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 209 (2): 130.e1-9.  
• Siston A, et al. 2010. Pandemic 2009 influenza A (H1N1) virus illness among pregnant women in the United States. JAMA; 3030(15):1517-1525.  
• Svensson T, et al. 2011. Birth outcomes among women exposed to neuraminidase inhibitors during pregnancy. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf; 20(10): 1030-1034.  
• Tanaka T, et al. 2009. Safety of neuraminidase inhibitors against novel influenza A (H1N1) in pregnant and breastfeeding women. CMAJ; 181(1-2):55-58.  
• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2025. Treating flu with antiviral drugs. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/treatment/antiviral-drugs.html.  
• The CDC. 2026. Influenza antiviral medications: Summary for clinicians. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/hcp/antivirals/summary-clinicians.html  [Accessed April 2026].  
• Van Bennekom CM, Kerr SM, Mitchell AA. 2019. Oseltamivir exposure in pregnancy and the risk of specific birth defects. Birth Defects Res; 111(19):1479-1486.  
• Wentges-van Holthe N, et al. 2008. Oseltamivir and breastfeeding. Int J Infect Dis; 12:451.  
• Wollenhaupt M, et al. 2014. The safety of oseltamivir in pregnancy: an updated review of post-marketing data. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf; 23(10):1035-1042.  
• Xie H-Y, et al. 2013. Infant outcomes among pregnant women who used oseltamivir for treatment of influenza during the H1N1 epidemic. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 208:293.e1-7. 

Selected References:

• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. 2020. Prelabor Rupture of Membranes: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 217. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 135(3):e80-e97. 
• Baklouti S. et al. 2025. Population pharmacokinetic modelling of amoxicillin in human breast milk-a contribution from the ConcePTION project. Br J Clin Pharmacol, doi: 10.1002. Epub ahead of print. 
• Benyamini L, et al. 2005. The safety of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and cefuroxime during lactation. Ther Drug Monit; 27:499-502.  
• Berkovitch M, et al. 2004. First-trimester exposure to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid: a prospective controlled study. Br J Clin Pharmacol; 58:298-302. 
• Boissiere-O’Neill T, et al. 2025. Exposure to systemic antimicrobials during pregnancy and risk of miscarriage: a population-based registry study. BJOG; doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.18155. Epub ahead of print.  
• Campbell AC, et al. 1991. The excretion of amoxicillin in breastmilk and its effect on the suckling infant. Br J Clin Pharmacol; 31:230. 
• Czeizel AE, et al. 2001. Augmentin treatment during pregnancy and the prevalence of congenital abnormalities: a population-based case-control teratologic study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol; 97:188-192.  
• Daniel S, et al. 2019. The safety of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid use in the first trimester of pregnancy. Br J Clin Pharmacol; 85:2856-2863. 
• Grantham J, et al. 2002. Association between co-amoxiclav used antenatally with necrotising enterocolitis in the neonate. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 187:S90.  
• Jepsen P, et al. 2003. A population-based study of maternal use of amoxicillin and pregnancy outcome in Denmark. Br J Clin Pharmacol; 55:216-221.  
• Kafetzis D, et al. 1981. Passage of cephalosporins and amoxicillin into the breast milk. Acta Paediatr Scand; 70:285-288. 
• Kenyon SL, et al. 2001. ORACLE Collaborative Group. Broad-spectrum antibiotics for preterm, prelabour rupture of fetal membranes: the ORACLE I randomised trial. ORACLE Collaborative Group. Lancet; 357:979-988.  
• Kenyon SL, et al. 2001. ORACLE Collaborative Group. Broad-spectrum antibiotics for spontaneous preterm labour: the ORACLE II randomised trial. ORACLE Collaborative Group. Lancet; 357:989-994. 
• Kenyon S, et al. 2002. ORACLE–antibiotics for preterm prelabour rupture of the membranes: short-term and long-term outcomes. Acta Paediatr Suppl; 437:12-15. 
• Kenyon S, et al. 2008. Childhood outcomes after prescription of antibiotics to pregnant women with spontaneous preterm labour: 7-year follow-up of the ORACLE II trial. Lancet; 372 (9646):1319-1327.  
• Kenyon S, et al. 2013. Preterm Labour, Antibiotics and Cerebral Palsy. Scientific Impact Paper No.33, Royal College of Obstetrics and Gynaecologists. 
• Kwasneiwski M, et al. 2025. Identification and characterization of anaerobic bacteria in human semen: a retrospective study. Anaerobe, 94:102977.  
• Laspro M, et al. 2024. Association of commonly prescribed antepartum medications and incidence of orofacial clefting. Sage Journals, 62(7):1164-1174. 
• Lin KJ, et al. 2012. Maternal exposure to amoxicillin and the risk of oral clefts. Epidemiology; 23(5):699-705.  Marlow N, et al. 2017. The ORACLE Children Study:
• educational outcomes at 11 years of age following antenatal prescription of erythromycin or co-amoxiclav. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed; 102(2):F131-F135.  
• Meeraus WH, et al. 2015. Association between antibiotic prescribing in pregnancy and cerebral palsy or epilepsy in children born at term: a cohort study using the health improvement network. PLoS ONE; 10(3):e0122034.  
• Mercer BM, et al. 1997. Antibiotic therapy for reduction of infant morbidity after preterm premature rupture of the membranes. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA; 278:989-995.  
• Merkel TA, et al. 2014. Predicting disease severity of necrotizing enterocolitis: how to identify infants for future novel therapies. J Clin Neonatol; 3(1):1-9. 
• Morawiec E, et al. 2022. Semen dysbiosis-just a male problem? Front Cell Infect Microbiol; 12:815786.  
• Padberg, S. 2015. Anti-infective Agents. In C Schaefer, P Peters, R Miller (Eds.), Drugs During Pregnancy and Lactation: Treatment Options and Risk Assessment. Pg 116. London: Elsevier. 
• Puho EH, et al. 2007. Drug treatment during pregnancy and isolated orofacial clefts in Hungary. Cleft Palate Craniofac J; 44:194-202. 
• Trahan J, et al. 2025. Antibiotic regimens for the management of preterm prelabour rupture of membranes: a multicenter retrospective cohort study. J Obstet Gynaecol Can, 47(7):102922. 
• Tran A, et al. 2025. First-trimester exposure to macrolides and risk of major congenital malformations compared with amoxicillin: a French nationwide cohort study. PLoS Med, 22(4):e1004576.