Amoxicillin and Clavulanic Acid

Selected References:

  • American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. 2020. Prelabor Rupture of Membranes: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 217. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 135(3):e80-e97. 
  • Baklouti S. et al. 2025. Population pharmacokinetic modelling of amoxicillin in human breast milk-a contribution from the ConcePTION project. Br J Clin Pharmacol, doi: 10.1002. Epub ahead of print. 
  • Benyamini L, et al. 2005. The safety of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and cefuroxime during lactation. Ther Drug Monit; 27:499-502.  
  • Berkovitch M, et al. 2004. First-trimester exposure to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid: a prospective controlled study. Br J Clin Pharmacol; 58:298-302. 
  • Boissiere-O’Neill T, et al. 2025. Exposure to systemic antimicrobials during pregnancy and risk of miscarriage: a population-based registry study. BJOG; doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.18155. Epub ahead of print.  
  • Campbell AC, et al. 1991. The excretion of amoxicillin in breastmilk and its effect on the suckling infant. Br J Clin Pharmacol; 31:230. 
  • Czeizel AE, et al. 2001. Augmentin treatment during pregnancy and the prevalence of congenital abnormalities: a population-based case-control teratologic study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol; 97:188-192.  
  • Daniel S, et al. 2019. The safety of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid use in the first trimester of pregnancy. Br J Clin Pharmacol; 85:2856-2863. 
  • Grantham J, et al. 2002. Association between co-amoxiclav used antenatally with necrotising enterocolitis in the neonate. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 187:S90.  
  • Jepsen P, et al. 2003. A population-based study of maternal use of amoxicillin and pregnancy outcome in Denmark. Br J Clin Pharmacol; 55:216-221.  
  • Kafetzis D, et al. 1981. Passage of cephalosporins and amoxicillin into the breast milk. Acta Paediatr Scand; 70:285-288. 
  • Kenyon SL, et al. 2001. ORACLE Collaborative Group. Broad-spectrum antibiotics for preterm, prelabour rupture of fetal membranes: the ORACLE I randomised trial. ORACLE Collaborative Group. Lancet; 357:979-988.  
  • Kenyon SL, et al. 2001. ORACLE Collaborative Group. Broad-spectrum antibiotics for spontaneous preterm labour: the ORACLE II randomised trial. ORACLE Collaborative Group. Lancet; 357:989-994. 
  • Kenyon S, et al. 2002. ORACLE–antibiotics for preterm prelabour rupture of the membranes: short-term and long-term outcomes. Acta Paediatr Suppl; 437:12-15. 
  • Kenyon S, et al. 2008. Childhood outcomes after prescription of antibiotics to pregnant women with spontaneous preterm labour: 7-year follow-up of the ORACLE II trial. Lancet; 372 (9646):1319-1327.  
  • Kenyon S, et al. 2013. Preterm Labour, Antibiotics and Cerebral Palsy. Scientific Impact Paper No.33, Royal College of Obstetrics and Gynaecologists. 
  • Kwasneiwski M, et al. 2025. Identification and characterization of anaerobic bacteria in human semen: a retrospective study. Anaerobe, 94:102977.  
  • Laspro M, et al. 2024. Association of commonly prescribed antepartum medications and incidence of orofacial clefting. Sage Journals, 62(7):1164-1174. 
  • Lin KJ, et al. 2012. Maternal exposure to amoxicillin and the risk of oral clefts. Epidemiology; 23(5):699-705.  Marlow N, et al. 2017. The ORACLE Children Study:
  • educational outcomes at 11 years of age following antenatal prescription of erythromycin or co-amoxiclav. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed; 102(2):F131-F135.  
  • Meeraus WH, et al. 2015. Association between antibiotic prescribing in pregnancy and cerebral palsy or epilepsy in children born at term: a cohort study using the health improvement network. PLoS ONE; 10(3):e0122034.  
  • Mercer BM, et al. 1997. Antibiotic therapy for reduction of infant morbidity after preterm premature rupture of the membranes. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA; 278:989-995.  
  • Merkel TA, et al. 2014. Predicting disease severity of necrotizing enterocolitis: how to identify infants for future novel therapies. J Clin Neonatol; 3(1):1-9. 
  • Morawiec E, et al. 2022. Semen dysbiosis-just a male problem? Front Cell Infect Microbiol; 12:815786.  
  • Padberg, S. 2015. Anti-infective Agents. In C Schaefer, P Peters, R Miller (Eds.), Drugs During Pregnancy and Lactation: Treatment Options and Risk Assessment. Pg 116. London: Elsevier. 
  • Puho EH, et al. 2007. Drug treatment during pregnancy and isolated orofacial clefts in Hungary. Cleft Palate Craniofac J; 44:194-202. 
  • Trahan J, et al. 2025. Antibiotic regimens for the management of preterm prelabour rupture of membranes: a multicenter retrospective cohort study. J Obstet Gynaecol Can, 47(7):102922. 
  • Tran A, et al. 2025. First-trimester exposure to macrolides and risk of major congenital malformations compared with amoxicillin: a French nationwide cohort study. PLoS Med, 22(4):e1004576. 

Amoxicillin and Clavulanic Acid

Selected References:

  • Anderson CA, Lieser C. 2015. Prenatal depression: Early intervention. Nurse Pract; 40(7):38-46. 
  • Bennett HA, et al. 2004. Depression during Pregnancy. Clin Drug Invest; 24 (3): 157-179. 
  • Bennett HA, et al. 2004. Prevalence of Depression during Pregnancy: Systematic Review. Obstet Gynecol; 103: 698-709 
  • Berard A, et al. 2017. Antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk of major congenital malformation in a cohort of depressed pregnant women: an updated analysis of the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort. BMJ Open 7:e013372. 
  • Björvang R, et al. 2024. Association of Diabetes Mellitus in Pregnancy and Perinatal Depression. Psychosomatic Medicine 86(1):52-58. 
  • Bonari L et al. 2004. Perinatal Risks of Untreated Depression during Pregnancy. Can J Psychiatry; 49:726-735. Bränn E, et al. 2024 Perinatal depression and its health impact. BMJ; 384: p2777.
  • Braverman A, et al. 2024. Depression, anxiety, quality of life, and infertility: A global lens on the last decade of research. Fertility and Sterility, 121(3), 379–383. 
  • Burt VK & Stein K. 2002. Epidemiology of Depression throughout the female life cycle. J Clin Psych; 63 (suppl 7): 9-15. 
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2018. Depression Among Women of Reproductive Age: https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/Depression/ Chisolm MS, Payne JL. 2016. Management of psychotropic drugs during pregnancy. BMJ; 532:h5918.
  • Chan J, et al. 2014. Risks of untreated depression in pregnancy. Can Fam Physician. 60(3):242-3. 
  • Coburn SS, et al. 2018. Prenatal Maternal Depressive Symptoms Predict Early Infant Health Concerns. Matern Child Health J; 22(6):786-793. 
  • Cohen LS, et al. 2006. Relapse of Major Depression During Pregnancy in Women Who Maintain or Discontinue Antidepressant Treatment. JAMA; 295: 499-507. 
  • Committee on Obstetric Practice. 2015. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee Opinion no. 630. Screening for perinatal depression. Obstet Gynecol; 125(5):1268-71. Dalke KB, et al. 2016. Depression and Anxiety during Pregnancy: Evaluating the Literature in Support of Clinical Risk-Benefit Decision-
  • Making. Curr Psychiatry Rep; 18(6):59. 
  • Depression in pregnant women and mothers: How children are affected, Paediatrics & Child Health, Volume 9, Issue 8, October 2004, Pages 584–586. 
  • Dias CC, et al. 2015. Breastfeeding and Depression. A systematic review of the literature. J Affect Disord; 171:142-54. 
  • Einarson A. 2005. The Safety of Psychotropic Drug Use during Pregnancy. Medscape General Medicine; 7 (4): 3. 
  • Evans-Hoeker et al. 2018. Major depression, antidepressant use and male and female fertility. Fertility and Sterility Vol 109 Issue 5, pp 879-887. 
  • Galbally M, et al. 2017. Neonatal adaption following intrauterine antidepressant exposure: assessment, drug assay levels, and infant development outcomes. Ped Res; 82(5): 806-813. 
  • Gavin NI, et al. 2005. Perinatal Depression: A Systematic Review of Prevalence and Incidence. Obstet Gynecol; 106 (5 pt 1): 1071-83. 
  • Glasser S, Lerner-Geva L. 2018. Focus on fathers: paternal depression in the perinatal period. Perspect Public Health. 2018 Jul 25:1757913918790597. doi: 10.1177/1757913918790597. [Epub ahead of print] Gustafsson HC, et al. 2018.
  • Major depressive disorder during pregnancy: Psychiatric medications have minimal effects on the fetus and infant yet development is compromised. Dev Psychopathol. 2018 Aug;30(3):773-785. 
  • Hagatulah N, et al. 2024. Perinatal depression and risk of mortality: nationwide, register based study in Sweden. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 384, e075462. 
  • Hahn-Holbrook J, et al. 2013. Does Breastfeeding Offer Protection Against Maternal Depressive Symptomology? Arch Women’s Ment Health; 16:411-422. 
  • Hermans A, et al. 2026. Prenatal maternal depression and child behavioural and developmental outcomes: An individual participant data meta-analysis in 76,514 children from the EU Child Cohort Network. The Lancet Regional Health – Europe, 63, Article 101595 
  • Jablensky AV, et al. 2005. Pregnancy, Delivery, and Neonatal Complications in a Population Cohort of Women with Schizophrenia and Major Affective Disorders. Am J Psychiatry; 162: 79-91. 
  • Jahan N, et al. 2021. Untreated Depression During Pregnancy and Its Effect on Pregnancy Outcomes: A Systematic Review. Cureus, 13(8), e17251.  
  • Jiang W, et al. 2018. The relationship of dietary diversity score with depression and anxiety among prenatal and post-partum women. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. doi: 10.1111/jog.13728. [Epub ahead of print] 
  • Kelly RH, et al. 2002. Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders as Risk factors for low birth weight and Preterm Delivery. Obstet Gynecol; 100 (2): 297-304. 
  • Kurki T, et al. 2000. Depression and Anxiety in Early Pregnancy and Risk for Pre-eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol; 95 (4): 487-490. 
  • Liu Y, et al. 2021. Postpartum depression and postpartum post-traumatic stress disorder: prevalence and associated factors. BMC Psychiatry; 21(1):487. 
  • McLearn KT, et al. 2006. Maternal Depressive Symptoms at 2 to 4 Months Post-Partum and Early Parenting Practices. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med; 160: 279-284. 
  • Mughal S, et al. Postpartum Depression. [Updated 2022 Oct 7]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519070/ 
  • Muzik M, Hamilton SE. 2016. Use of Antidepressants during Pregnancy? What to consider when weighing treatment with Antidepressants against Untreated Depression. Matern Child Health J. 
  • National Institute of Mental Health. Perinatal Depression. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. Retrieved January 24, 2024, from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression 
  • Nillni YI, et al. 2016. Depression, anxiety, and psychotropic medication use and fecundability. Am J Obstet Gynecol.;215(4):453.e1-453.e4538. 
  • Nillni YI, et al. 2022. The association between time-to-pregnancy and postpartum depressive symptoms in a North American prospective cohort study. Ann Epidemiol.;74:51-57. 
  • Okun ML. 2016. Disturbed Sleep and Postpartum Depression. Curr Psychiatry Rep; 18(7):66. 
  • Ogunyemi D, et al. 2018. The Contribution of Untreated and Treated Anxiety and Depression to Prenatal, Intrapartum, and Neonatal Outcomes. AJP Rep; 8(3):e146-e157. 
  • Pan J, et al. 2025. Effects of sleep quality, anxiety, and depression on miscarriage among pregnant women: a multi-center prospective observational study. Transl Psychiatry 15, 131. 
  • Pajulo M, et al. 2001. Antenatal Depression, Substance Dependency and Social Support. J Aff Disorders; 65:9-17. 
  • Pao C, et al. 2019. Postpartum depression and social support in a racially and ethnically diverse population of women. Archives of women’s mental health, 22(1), 105–114. Rath K, & Mv S. 2025. Association Between Gestational
  • Robertson E, et al. 2004. Antenatal Risk Factors for Postpartum Depression: A Synthesis of Recent Literature. Gen Hosp Psychiatry; 26 (4): 289-95. 
  • Romero-Gonzalez B, et al. 2018. Newborn infants’ hair cortisol levels reflect chronic maternal stress during pregnancy. PLoS One; 13(7):e0200279. 
  • Sanz EJ, et al. 2005. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors in Pregnant Women and Neonatal Withdrawal Syndrome: A Database Analysis. Lancet; 365: 482-487. 
  • Stewart AL, Payne JL. 2023. Perinatal Depression: A Review and an Update. Psychiatr Clin North Am; 46(3):447-461. 
  • Vigod SN, et al. 2016. Depression in pregnancy. BMJ; 352:i1547. 
  • Vintzileos AM, et al. 2002. The Impact of Prenatal Care in the United States on Preterm Births in the Presence and Absence of Antenatal High-Risk Conditions. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 187: 1254-1257. 
  • Wdowik A et al 2017. Impact of emotional disorders on semen quality in men treated for infertility. Neuro Endocrin Lett. Feb; 38(1):50-58. 
  • Xu F, et al. 2014. Does Infant Feeding Method Impact on Maternal Mental Health? Breastfeeding Medicine; 9(4). 
  • Zielińska M, et al. 2023. Dietary Nutrient Deficiencies and Risk of Depression (Review Article 2018-2023). Nutrients, 15(11), 2433.  

 

 

 

Amoxicillin and Clavulanic Acid

Selected References:

  • Andersson NK, et al. 2021. Fetal safety of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine use during pregnancy: a nationwide cohort study. Rheumatology (Oxford). 14;60(5):2317-2326. 
  • Bérard A, et al. 2021. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine use during pregnancy and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes using real-world evidence. Front Pharmacol. 12:722511. 
  • Berman A, et al. 2025. Hydroxychloroquine and pregnancy outcomes in patients with anti-phospholipid syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. RMD Open. 11(3):e005825.  
  • Bermas BL, et al. 2018. Trends in use of hydroxychloroquine during pregnancy in systemic lupus erythematosus patients from 2001 to 2015. Lupus. 27(6):1012-1017.  
  • Buchanan NM, et al. 1996. Hydroxychloroquine and lupus pregnancy: review of a series of 36 cases. Ann Rheum Dis. 55(7):486-488.  
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2024. Malaria. Available at URL: https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/index.html [Accessed April 2026] 
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2024. Treatment of Malaria: Guidelines for Clinicians (United States): Alternatives for Pregnant Women. Available at URL: https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/hcp/clinical-guidance/pregnant-women.html [Accessed April 2026] 
  • Chambers CD, et al. 2022. Birth outcomes in women who have taken hydroxychloroquine during pregnancy: a prospective cohort study. Arthritis Rheumatol. 74(4):711-724.  
  • Cimaz R, et al. 2004. Electroretinograms of children born to mothers treated with hydroxychloroquine during pregnancy and breast-feeding: comment on the article by Costedoat-Chalumeau et al. Arthritis Rheum. 50(9):3056-3057. 
  • Clowse MEB, et al. 2006. Hydroxychloroquine in lupus pregnancy. Arthritis Rheum. 54(11):3640-3647.  
  • Costedoat-Chalumeau N, et al. 2003. Safety of hydroxychloroquine in pregnant patients with connective tissue diseases: a study of one hundred thirty-three cases compared with a control group. Arthritis Rheum. 48(11):3207-3211. 
  • Diav-Citrin O, et al. 2013. Pregnancy outcome following in utero exposure to hydroxychloroquine: a prospective comparative observational study. Reprod Toxicol. 39:58-62. 
  • Feldkamp M, Carey JC. 1993. Clinical teratology counseling and consultation case report: low dose methotrexate exposure in the early weeks of pregnancy. Teratology. 47(6):533-539. 
  • Flint J, et al. 2016. BSR and BHPR guideline on prescribing drugs in pregnancy and breastfeeding-Part I: standard and biologic disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs and corticosteroids. Rheumatology (Oxford). 55(9):1693-1697.  
  • Frassi M, et al. 2004. Hydroxychloroquine in pregnant patients with rheumatic disease: a case control observation of 76 treated pregnancies. Lupus 13(9):755. 
  • Howley MM, et al. 2021. Maternal exposure to hydroxychloroquine and birth defects. Birth Defects Res 113(17):1245-1256. 
  • Huybrechts KF, et al. 2021. Hydroxychloroquine early in pregnancy and risk of birth defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 224(3):290.e1-290.e22. 
  • Ingster-Moati I,  Albuisson E. 2010. Visual neurophysiological dysfunction in infants exposed to hydroxychloroquine in utero. Acta Paediatr. 99(1):4; author reply 4-5. 
  • Kaplan YC, et al. 2016. Reproductive outcomes following hydroxychloroquine use for autoimmune diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 81(5):835-848. 
  • Kroese SJ, et al. 2017. Hydroxychloroquine use in lupus patients during pregnancy is associated with longer pregnancy duration in preterm births. J Immunol Res. 2017:2810202. Levy RA, et al. 2001. Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) in lupus
  • pregnancy: double-blind and placebo-controlled study. Lupus. 10(6):401-404. 
  • Mairesse R, et al. 2026. In utero exposure to medications and congenital eye anomalies. BMJ Open Ophthalmol. 11(1):e002049. Available: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12778234/pdf/bmjophth-11-1.pdf [Accessed April 2026] 
  • Mirzaei M, et al. 2023. The effects of hydroxychloroquine on pregnancy outcomes in infertile women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Med Life. 16(2):189-194. 
  • Mouyis M, et al. 2019. Safety of anti-rheumatic drugs in men trying to conceive: a systematic review and analysis of published evidence. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 48(5): 911-920. 
  • National Institutes of Health. 2021. Product label: hydroxychloroquine sulfate tablet. Available at URL: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=84b00366-96ef-41e1-bac6-5d24acdb9e1d. [Accessed April 2026] 
  • Rüegg L, et al. 2025. EULAR recommendations for use of antirheumatic drugs in reproduction, pregnancy, and lactation: 2024 update. Ann Rheum Dis. 84(6):910-926.  
  • Sammaritano LR, et al. 2020 American College of Rheumatology Guideline for the Management of Reproductive Health in Rheumatic and Musculoskeletal Diseases. Arthritis Rheumatol. 72(4):529-556.  
  • Silver R, et al. 2023. Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine Consult Series #64: Systemic lupus erythematosus in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 228(3):B41-B60. 
  • Sperber K, et al. 2009. Systematic review of hydroxychloroquine use in pregnant patients with autoimmune diseases. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 13:7:9. 
  • Tian Y, et al. 2021. The additional use of hydroxychloroquine can improve the live birth rate in pregnant women with persistent positive antiphospholipid antibodies: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod. 50(8):102121.  
  • Ye S, et al. 2023. The use of hydroxychloroquine in pregnancy and its effect on perinatal outcomes in a population with autoimmune abnormalities. Clin Rheumatol. 42(4):1137-1150.  
  • Zhu Q, et al. 2024. Effect of hydroxychloroquine on pregnancy outcome in patients with SLE: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lupus Sci Med. 11(2):e001239. 

Amoxicillin and Clavulanic Acid

Selected References:

  • Alothman R, et al. 2023. Leflunomide exposure through second trimester of pregnancy: A case report. Birth Defects Res. 1;115(16):1566-1569. 
  • Arava Prescribing Information. 2021. Available online at https://products.sanofi.us/arava/arava.pdf [accessed February 2024].  
  • Bérard A, et al. 2018. Leflunomide use during pregnancy and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Ann Rheum Dis. 77(4):500-509.  
  • Brent RL. 2001. Teratogen update: Reproductive risks of leflunomide (Arava); A pyrimidine synthesis inhibitor: Counseling women taking leflunomide before or during pregnancy and men taking leflunomide who are contemplating fathering a child. Teratology. 63:106-112.  
  • Briggs G, et al. 2015. Leflunomide. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation, A reference Guide to Fetal and Neonatal Risk, 10th edition (pp 781—784). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health. 
  • Cassina M, et al. 2012. Pregnancy outcome in women exposed to leflunomide before or during pregnancy. Arthritis Rheum. 64(7):2085-2094.  
  • Chakravarty EF, et al. 2003. The use of disease modifying antirheumatic drugs in women with rheumatoid arthritis of childbearing age: a survey of practice patterns and pregnancy outcomes. J Rheumatol. 30:241-246.  
  • Chambers CD, et al. 2010. Birth outcomes in pregnant women taking leflunomide. Arthritis Rheu. 62(5):1494-1503.  
  • Chambers CD, et al. 2007. Are new agents used to treat rheumatoid arthritis safe to take during pregnancy? Organization of Teratology Information Specialists (OTIS) study. Motherisk Update. 53(3):409-412.  
  • Chin A, et al. 2025. Recommendations for the use of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs in pregnancy and reproductive health for patients with rheumatic disease: a scoping review. Arthritis care & research. 77(10):1273-1281. 
  • De Klaver PAG, et al. 2022. Leflunomide exposure and teriflunomide concentrations up to the third trimester of pregnancy: a case report. Clin Drug Invest. 42:787-789. 
  • De Santis M, et al. 2005. Paternal and maternal exposure to leflunomide: pregnancy and neonatal outcome. Ann Rheum Dis. 64:1096-1097. 
  • Hajdyla-Banas I, et al. 2009. Pregnancy course and neonatal outcome after exposure to leflunomide –2 cases report and review of literature. Przegl Lek. 66(12):1069-1071. 
  • Heine K & Peots CF. 2008. A pair of twins born after maternal exposure to leflunomide. J Perinatol. 28(12):841-842. 
  • Henson LJ, et al. 2020. Pregnancy outcomes in patients treated with leflunomide, the parent compound of the multiple sclerosis drug teriflunomide. Reprod Toxicol. 95:45-50.  
  • Karadag O, et al. 2013. Pregnancy outcomes of rheumatic patients with pre/peri gestational leflunomide exposure. Ann Rheum Dis. 72(Supp 3):A896-A897. 
  • Kraemer B, et al. 2008. A successful pregnancy in a patient with Takayasu’s asteritis. Hypertens Pregnancy. 27(3):247-252. 
  • Levy RA, et al. 2016. Critical review of the current recommendations for the treatment of systemic inflammatory rheumatic diseases during pregnancy and lactation. Autoimmun Rev. 15(10):955-963. 
  • Neville CE & McNally J. 2007. Maternal exposure to leflunomide  associated with blindness and cerebral palsy. Rheumatology (Oxford). 46(9):1506. 
  • Paulus W, et al. 2006. The use of leflunomide in fertile patients with rheumatoid arthritis [abstract]. Reprod Toxicol. 22:281.  
  • Pfaller B, et al. 2020. A critical review of the reproductive safety of leflunomide. Clin Rheumatol. 39(2):607-612. 
  • Princk C, et al. 2024. Use of leflunomide among girls and women of childbearing age and occurrence of leflunomide-exposred pregnancies in Germany. Reproductive Toxicology. 125:108573. 
  • Russell MD, et al. 2023. British Society for Rheumatology guideline on prescribing drugs in pregnancy and breastfeeding: immunomodulatory anti-rheumatic drugs and corticosteroids. Rheumatology (Oxford, England). 62(4):e48-e88. 
  • Sammaritano LR, et al. 2020. 2020 American College of Rheumatology Guideline for the Management of Reproductive Health in Rheumatic and Musculoskeletal  Diseases. Arthritis Care & Research. 72(4):461-488. 
  • Sayarlioglu M, et al. 2010. Maternal exposure to leflunomide and methotrexate in a patient with adult-onset Still’s disease. Rheumatology (Oxford). 49(9):1787-1789. 
  • Schaefer C, et al. 2015. Immunosuppression, rheumatic diseases, multiple sclerosis, and Wilson’s disease: Leflunomide. In: Drugs during pregnancy and lactation: Treatment options and risk assessment, 3rd ed (pp 362-363)(pp 658-659). London: Academic Press. 
  • Song Y, et al. 2024. Medication utilization trends during pregnancy and factors influencing adverse pregnancy outcomes in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. RMD Open. 10(1):e003739. 
  • Viktil KK, et al. 2012. Outcomes after anti-rheumatic drug use before and during pregnancy: a cohort study among 150,000 pregnant women and expectant fathers. Scand J Rheumatol. 41(3):196-201. 
  • Weber-Schoendorfer C, et al. 2017. Leflunomide – A human teratogen? A still not answered question. An evaluation of the German Embryotox pharmacovigilance database. Reprod Toxicol. Aug;71:101-107.

Amoxicillin and Clavulanic Acid

Selected References:

Amoxicillin and Clavulanic Acid
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