Selected References:

• Anderson KN, et al., 2020. Maternal use of specific antidepressant medications during early pregnancy and the risk of selected birth defects. JAMA psychiatry, 77(12):1246–1255.  
• Bellantuono C, et al. 2015. The safety of serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) in pregnancy and breastfeeding: a comprehensive review. Hum Psychopharmacol. 30(3):143-51. 
• Berard A, et al. 2017. Antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk of major congenital malformations in a cohort of depressed pregnant women: An updated analysis of the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort. BMJ Open;7: e013372. 
• Berle JO, et al. 2004. Breastfeeding during maternal antidepressant treatment with serotonin reuptake inhibitors: infant exposure, clinical symptoms, and cytochrome P450 genotypes. J Clin Psychiatry. 65(9):1228-1234. 
• Chambers CD, et al. 2006. Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. N Engl J Med. 354:579-587. 
• Dandjinou M, et al. 2019. Antidepressant use during pregnancy and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a nested case-control study. BMJ Open 9(9): e025908. 
• Das N, Chadda RK. 2020. Hyperprolactinemic galactorrhea associated with cefpodoxime in a patient with recurrent depressive disorder on venlafaxine monotherapy: A case report. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 40:635–6. 
• Desai PH, et al. 2019. Risk of congenital heart disease in newborns with prenatal exposure to anti-depressant medications. Cureus 11(5): e4673. 
• de Santi F, et al. 2021. Venlafaxine-induced damage to seminiferous epithelium, spermiation, and sperm parameters in rats: A correlation with high estrogen levels. Andrology. 9(1):297-311.  
• Einarson A, et al. 2001. Pregnancy outcome following gestational exposure to venlafaxine: a multicenter prospective controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 158(10):1728-1730. 
• Ferreira E, et al. 2007. Effects of selective reuptake inhibitors and venlafaxine during pregnancy in term and preterm neonates. Pediatrics. 119(1):52-59. 
• Furu K, et al. 2015. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and venlafaxine in early pregnancy and risk of birth defects: population based cohort study and sibling design. BMJ. 350:h1798. 
• Grzeskowiak LE, et al. 2022. Perinatal antidepressant use and breastfeeding outcomes: Findings from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 101:344–54 
• Grigoriadis S, et al. 2013. The effect of prenatal antidepressant exposure on neonatal adaptation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry.74(4): e309-20. 
• Holland J, Brown R. 2017. Neonatal venlafaxine discontinuation syndrome: A mini-review. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 21(2):264-8. 
• Ilett KF, et al. 2002. Distribution of venlafaxine and its o-desmethyl metabolite in human milk and their effects in breastfed infants. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 53:17-22. 
• Kieviet N, et al. 2015. Risk factors for poor neonatal adaptation after exposure to antidepressants in utero. Acta Paediatr.104(4):384-91. 
• Kolding L, et al. 2021. Antidepressant use in pregnancy and severe cardiac malformations: Danish register-based study. BJOG 128(12):1949-1957. 
• Lassen D, et al., 2016. First-trimester pregnancy exposure to venlafaxine or duloxetine and risk of major congenital malformations: A systematic review. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 118(1):32-6. 
• Lennestal R and Kallen B. 2007. Delivery outcome in relation to maternal use of some recently introduced antidepressants. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 27(6):607-613. 
• Levinson-Castiel R, et al. 2006. Neonatal abstinence syndrome after in utero exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in term infants. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 160:173-176. 
• Marks C, et al. 2021. Comparing newborn outcomes after prenatal exposure to individual antidepressants: A retrospective cohort study. Pharmacotherapy. 41(11):907-914. 
• Matthys A, et al. 2014. Psychotropic medication use during pregnancy and lactation: Role of ultrasound assessment. Donald Sch J Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 8:109-21. 
• Newport DJ, et al. 2009. Venlafaxine in human breast milk and nursing infant plasma: determination of exposure. J.Clin Psychiatry. 70(9):1304-10. 
• Newport DJ, et al. 2016. Prenatal psychostimulant and antidepressant exposure and risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. J Clin Psychiatry. 77(11):1538-45. 
• Nulman I, et al. 2012. Neurodevelopment of children following prenatal exposure to venlafaxine, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or untreated maternal depression. Am J Psychiatry. 169(11):1165-74. 
• Polen KN, et al., National Birth Defects Prevention Study. 2013. Association between reported venlafaxine use in early pregnancy and birth defects, national birth defects prevention study, 1997-2007. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol.97(1):28-35. 
• Rai D, et al. 2017. Antidepressants during pregnancy and autism in offspring: population-based cohort study. BMJ 358:j2811,  
• Richardson JL, et al. 2019. Pregnancy outcomes following maternal venlafaxine use: a prospective observational comparative cohort study. Reprod Toxicol 84:108-113, 
• Schoretsanitis G, et al. 2019. Antidepressants in breastmilk: comparative analysis of excretion ratios. Arch Womens Ment Health 22(3):383-390. 
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2023. Effexor XR Drug Label. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2023/020699s118lbl.pdf. Accessed 5 March 2026.  
• Wang XY, et al. 2023. Antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk for gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 36(1):2162817,  
• Wartko PD, et al. 2019. Antidepressant continuation in pregnancy and risk of gestational diabetes. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 28(9): 1194-1203. 
• Westin AA, et al. 2017. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and venlafaxine in pregnancy: Changes in drug disposition. PLoS One. 12(7):e0181082. 
• Yue M, et al. 2023. Pharmacokinetics of Antidepressants in Pregnancy. J Clin Pharmacol. 63 Suppl 1: S137-S158. 

Selected References:

• Adeniyi AA, et al. 2024. Oral Health, Anxiety, Depression, and Stress in Pregnancy: A Rapid Review of Associations and Implications for Perinatal Care. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 22(1):32.  
• American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC. 
• Anderson PO. 2024. Anxiety Disorders and Breastfeeding. Breastfeed Med. 19(3):152-154. 
• Arvanitidou O, et al. 2023. The Impact of Stress and Depression on the Outcome of Human Gestation. Cureus.15(11):e48700.  
• Bhongade M, et al. 2015. Effect of psychological stress on fertility hormones and seminal quality in male partners of infertile couples. Andrologia. 47(3):336–342. 
• Bodunde EO, et al. 2025. Pregnancy and birth complications and long-term maternal mental health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG.132(2):131-142.  
• Bolea-Alamañac B, et al. 2018. Do mothers who are anxious during pregnancy have inattentive children? J Affect Disord. 236:120-126. 
• Clinkscales N, et al. 2023. The effectiveness of psychological interventions for anxiety in the perinatal period: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Psychother. 96(2):296–327.  
• Dabb C, et al. 2023. Paternal pregnancy-related anxiety: Systematic review of men’s concerns and experiences during their partners’ pregnancies. J Affect Disord. 323:640–658. 
• Dean DC, et al. 2018. Association of prenatal maternal depression and anxiety symptoms with infant white matter microstructure. JAMA Pediatr. 172(10):973-981. 
• Ding X-X, et al. 2014. Maternal anxiety during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. J Affect Disord. 159:103–110. 
• Dunkel Schetter C, et al. 2022. Anxiety in pregnancy and length of gestation: Findings from the healthy babies before birth study. Health psychology: official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association 41(12):894–903. 
• George A, et al. 2013. Anxiety symptoms and coping strategies in the perinatal period. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 13:233. 
• Gimbel LA, et al. 2022. Pregnancy outcomes and anxiety in nulliparous women. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 35(25):8681-8690.  
• Göbel A, et al. 2018. The association between maternal-fetal bonding and prenatal anxiety: An explanatory analysis and systematic review. J Affect Disord. 239:313-327. 
• Goodman J, et al. 2014. Anxiety disorders during pregnancy: A systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry. 75(10):e1153-e1154. 
• Grigoriadis S, et al. 2018. Maternal Anxiety During Pregnancy and the Association with Adverse Perinatal Outcomes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 79(5):17r12011. 
• Hadfield K, et al. 2022. Measurement of pregnancy-related anxiety worldwide: a systematic review. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 22(1):331. 
• Koerner A, et al. 2024. Are Providers Adequately Screening for Anxiety Symptoms During Pregnancy? Nurs Womens Health. 28(2):109-116.  
• Korja R, et al. 2024. Trajectories of maternal depressive and anxiety symptoms and child’s socio-emotional outcome during early childhood. J Affect Disord. 349:625–634. 
• Magnus MC, et al. 2021. Risk of miscarriage in women with psychiatric disorders. Br J Psychiatry. 219(3):501-506. 
• Malm H, et al. 2015. Pregnancy complications following prenatal exposure to SSRIs or maternal psychiatric disorders: Results from population-based National Register data. Am J Psychiatry. 172(12):1224-1232. 
• Misri S, et al. 2015. Perinatal generalized anxiety disorder: assessment and treatment. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 24(9):762–770. 
• Mughal MK, et al. 2019. Trajectories of maternal distress and risk of child developmental delays: Findings from the All Our Families (AOF) pregnancy cohort. J Affect Disord. 248:1-12. 
• Navaratne P, et al. 2016. Impact of a high Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale score on obstetric and perinatal outcomes. Sci Rep. 6:33544. 
• Ossola P, et al. 2021. Anxiety, depression, and birth outcomes in a cohort of unmedicated women. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med; 34(10):1606-1612.  
• Pan Y, et al. 2022. Association between generalized anxiety symptoms and semen quality in infertile men: A multicentre study in North China. Andrologia. 54(8):e14449. Pavlov M, et al. 2014. Obstetric and neonatal outcome in patients with anxiety disorders. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 27:(13) 1339-1342. 
• Pezley L, et al. 2022. Efficacy of behavioral interventions to improve maternal mental health and breastfeeding outcomes: a systematic review. Int Breastfeed J. 17(1):67. 
• Purkiewicz A, et al. 2025. Breastfeeding: The Multifaceted Impact on Child Development and Maternal Well-Being. Nutrients. 17(8):1326.  
• Ramos I, et al. 2022. Pregnancy anxiety, placental corticotropin-releasing hormone and length of gestation. Biol Psychol. 172:108376. 
• Ravid E, et al. 2018. Is there an association between maternal anxiety propensity and pregnancy outcomes? BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 18(1):287. 
• Rogers A, et al. 2020. Association Between Maternal Perinatal Depression and Anxiety and Child and Adolescent Development: A Meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 174(11):1082-1092. 
• Rooney KL, Domar AD. 2018. The relationship between stress and infertility. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 20(1):41-47. 
• Salehi F, et al. 2016. Comparison of group cognitive behavioral therapy and interactive lectures in reducing anxiety during pregnancy: A quasi experimental trial. Medicine (Baltimore). 95(43):e5224. 
• Schetter CD, et al. 2022. Anxiety in pregnancy and length of gestation: Findings from the healthy babies before birth study. Health Psychol. 41(12):894–903. Shi Y, Han
• Q. 2024. Does maternal anxiety and depression increase the risk of asthma in the offspring? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 28(3):1066–1076. 
• Smith CA, et al. 2019. The effect of complementary medicines and therapies on maternal anxiety and depression in pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 245:428-439. 
• Veleminsky M, et al. 2024. Depression and Anxiety. Depression and anxiety in women during physiological pregnancy. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 45(7-8):523-538. 
• Yang Z, et al. 2023. Trajectory of prenatal anxiety and depression and its association with fetal growth development. Early Hum Dev. 187:105875. 
• Yonkers KA, et al. 2017. Association of panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and benzodiazepine treatment during pregnancy with adverse birth outcomes. JAMA Psychiatry. 74(11):1145-1152. 
• Zhang T, et al. 2023. The impact of maternal depression, anxiety, and stress on early neurodevelopment in boys and girls. J Affect Disord. 321:74–82. 
• Zhou J, et al. 2023. Maternal anxiety during pregnancy and children’s asthma in preschool age: The Ma’anshan birth cohort study. J Affect Disord. 340:312–320. 
• Zhou J, et al. 2023. Maternal pregnancy-related anxiety and children’s physical growth: the Ma’anshan birth cohort study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 23(1):384. 

Selected References:

• Alhazmi AM, Albulushi A. 2025. Targeted antihypertensive therapy after hypertensive pregnancy: Lactation-safe choices, treatment thresholds, and outcomes (2015-2025). Curr Probl Cardiol. 50(12):103191. 
• Bateman BT, et al. 2016. Late pregnancy β Blocker exposure and risks of neonatal hypoglycemia and bradycardia. Pediatrics. 138(3):e20160731. 
• Beau A-B, et al. 2014. Safety of oseltamivir during pregnancy: a comparative study using the EFEMERIS database. BJOG. 121(7):895-900.  
• Berger AA, et al. 2025. Peripartum antihypertensive use and the risk of neonatal hypoglycemia and postpartum uterine atony: a retrospective cohort study. Pregnancy Hypertens. 41:101232. 
• Caton AR, et al. 2009.  Antihypertensive medication use during pregnancy and the risk of cardiovascular malformations. Hypertension. 54(1):63-70. 
• Chan WS, et al. 2010. Neurocognitive development of children following in-utero exposure to labetalol for maternal hypertension: a cohort study using a prospectively collected database. Hypertens Pregnancy. 29(3):271-83.  
• Clark SM, et al. 2015. A review of oral labetalol and nifedipine in mild to moderate hypertension in pregnancy. Seminars in perinatology. 39(7):548–555. 
• Crooks B, et al. 1998. Adverse neonatal effects of maternal labetalol treatment. Archives of disease in childhood. Fetal and neonatal edition. 79(2):F150–F151. 
• Davis RL, et al. 2011. Risks of congenital malformations and perinatal events among infants exposed to calcium channel and beta-blockers during pregnancy. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 20(2):138-45.  
• Duan L, et al. 2017. β-Blocker exposure in pregnancy and risk of fetal cardiac anomalies. JAMA Internal Medicine. 177(6):885–887. 
• Firoz T, et al. 2014. Community Level Interventions for Pre-eclampsia (CLIP) Working Group. Oral antihypertensive therapy for severe hypertension in pregnancy and postpartum: a systematic review. BJOG. 121(10):1210-8. 
• Freppel R, et al. 2024. Beta-blockers and breastfeeding: a real-life prospective study. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 80(12):1937–1943. 
• Lam MTC, Dierking E. 2017. Intensive care unit issues in eclampsia and HELLP syndrome. Int J Crit Illn Inj Sci. 7:136–141 
• Magee LA, et al. 2022. The 2021 International Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy classification, diagnosis & management recommendations for international practice. Pregnancy hypertension. 27:148-169. 
• Magee LA, et al. 2015. Labetalol for hypertension in pregnancy. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 14(3):453–461. 
• Magnus MC, et al. 2021. Risk of miscarriage in women with chronic diseases in Norway: A registry linkage study. PLoS Med. 18(5):e1003603. 
• Nunez-Pellot C, et al. 2025. Lactation safety of cardiovascular medications. Am Heart J Plus. 55:100552. 
• O’Meara J, White WB. 1988. Ejaculatory failure and urinary dysfunction secondary to labetalol. J Urol. 139:371-2.  
• Pasker-de Jong PC, et al. 2010. Antihypertensive treatment during pregnancy and functional development at primary school age in a historical cohort study. BJOG. 117(9):1080-6. 
• Ramlakhan KP, et al; ROPAC Investigators. 2024. Perinatal outcomes after in-utero exposure to beta-blockers in women with heart disease: Data from the ESC EORP registry of pregnancy and cardiac disease (ROPAC). Int J Cardiol. 410:132234. 
• Reddy S, Jim B. 2019. Hypertension and pregnancy: Management and future risks. Advances in Chronic Kidney Disease. 26(2):137–145.  
• Ruys TP, et al. 2014. Cardiac medication during pregnancy, data from the ROPAC. Int J Cardiol. 177(1):124-8.  
• Tanaka K, et al. 2016. Beta-blockers and fetal growth restriction in pregnant women with cardiovascular disease. Circ J. 80(10):2221-6. 
• U.S. Food & Drug Administration. (Revised 4/2024). Labetalol hydrochloride drug label. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2024/018716s036lbl.pdf. [Accessed 1/2026]. 
• Van Zutphen AR, et al.  2014. Maternal hypertension, medication use, and hypospadias in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study.  Obstet Gynecol. 123:309-317. 
• Xie RH, et al. 2014. Association between labetalol use for hypertension in pregnancy and adverse infant outcomes. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 175:124-8. 
• Xie RH, et al. 2014. Beta-blockers increase the risk of being born small for gestational age or of being institutionalized during infancy. BJOG. 121(9):1090-6. 
• Yakoob MY, et al.  2013. The risk of congenital malformations associated with exposure to β-blockers early in pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Hypertension. 62(2):375–381. 
• Yang X, et al. 2019. Distinct outcomes of labetalol exposed infants: case reports and systematic review. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine. 1–7. 

Selected References:

• Bieńkowski CA, et al. 2022. Analysis of preventable risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women: case-control study. J Clin Med. 11(4):1005. 
• Buzby, JC, 2001. Children and Microbial Foodborne Illness. United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service 24(2): 1-6. 
• Cavaliere AF, et al. 2023. Case report: vertical transmission of Plesiomonas shigelloides. Is it time to strengthen information on safety concerns for raw seafood dietary exposure in pregnancy? J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 36(1):2220061.  
• Cerisola A, et al. 2025. Congenital toxoplasmosis. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 54:101203.  
• Craig AM, et al. 2019. Listeriosis in Pregnancy: A Review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 74(6):362–368.  
• Illinois Department of Public Health. ND. Safe food handling. https://www.idph.state.il.us/public/hb/hbsafefood.htm/ Accessed 16 June 2026. 
• Jeffs E, et al. 2020. The epidemiology of listeriosis in pregnant women and children in New Zealand from 1997 to 2016: an observational study. BMC Public Health. 20(1):116.  
• Jones JL. 2011. Sushi in pregnancy, parasitic diseases – obstetrician survey. Zoonoses Public Health. 58(2):119-125.  
• Montoya JG, et al 2024. Toxoplasmosis. Lancet. 363(9425):1965-1976.  
• New York State Department of Health. 2014. Advice on Eating Game. https://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/outdoors/fish/health_advisories/advice_on_eating_game.htm. Accessed 16 June 2026. 
• Oyeyemi OT, et al. 2020. Toxoplasmosis in pregnancy: A neglected bane but a serious threat in Nigeria. Parasitology. 147(2):127–134. 
• Quinlan JJ. 2013. Foodborne illness incidence rates and food safety risks for populations of low socioeconomic status and minority race/ethnicity: a review of the literature. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 10(8): 3634-3652. 
• U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2024. About Listeria infection. https://www.cdc.gov/listeria/about/index.html. Accessed 16 June 2026.  
• U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2025. About Bacterial Meningitis. https://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/about/bacterial-meningitis.html. Accessed 16 June 2026. 
• U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2024. About Salmonella Infection. https://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/about/index.html. Accessed 16 June 2026.  
• U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2025. About Toxoplasmosis. https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html. Accessed 16 June 2026. 
• U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2024. About Vibrio infection. https://www.cdc.gov/vibrio/about/index.html/ Accessed 16 June 2026.  
• United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2025. Safe Minimum Internal Temperature Chart. https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/food-safety-basics/safe-temperature-chart. Accessed 16 June 2026.  

Selected References:

• Cazzola M, et al. 2002. Clinical pharmacokinetics of salmeterol. Clin Pharmacokinet, 41(1):19-30. 
• Cossette B, et al. 2014. Relative perinatal safety of salmeterol vs formoterol and fluticasone vs budesonide use during pregnancy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol, 112(5):459-464. 
• GlaxoSmithKline LLC. 2020. Serevent diskus prescribing information. 
• Jones KL, et al. 2002. Salmeterol use and pregnancy outcomes: a prospective multi-center study. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 109:S156.  
• Lim A, et al. 2011 Systematic review of the safety of regular preventive asthma medications during pregnancy. Ann Pharmacother, 5(7-8):931-945.  
• National Asthma Education and Prevention Program Asthma and Pregnancy Working Group. 2025. NAEPP expert panel report: managing asthma during pregnancy—recommendations for pharmacologic treatment—2004 update. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 115(1):34–46.  
• Taddio A, Ito S. 2001. Drugs and breast-feeding. In: Koren G, ed. Maternal-fetal toxicology. A clinician’s guide. 3rd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, 177-132. 
• Wilton LV, et al. 1998. The outcomes of pregnancy in women exposed to newly marketed drugs in general practice in England. Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 105:882-889.