Lisinopril

Selected References:

  • Barr M Jr, Cohen MM Jr. 1991. ACE inhibitor fetopathy and hypocalvaria: the kidney-skull connection. Teratology; 44:485-495. 
  • Bhatt-Mehta V, Deluga KS. 1993. Fetal exposure to lisinopril: neonatal manifestations and management. Pharmacotherapy;13(5): 515-518. 
  • Burrows RF, Burrows EA. 1998. Assessing the teratogenic potential of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in pregnancy. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol; 38(3):306-311. 
  • Chugh J, Dai J, Datta P, Krutsch K. 2025. Investigating the transfer of lisinopril into human milk: a quantitative analysis. J CardiovascPharmacol;85(1):4-87. 
  • Cooper WO, et al. 2006. Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N Engl J Med; 354(23): 2443-2451.  
  • Diav-Citrin O, et al. 2011. Pregnancy outcome after in utero exposure to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers. Reprod Toxicol; 31(4):540-545. 
  • Filler G, et al. 2003. Early dialysis in a neonate with intrauterine lisinopril exposure. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed,88(2):F154-156.
  • Friedman JM. 2006. ACE inhibitors and congenital anomalies. NEnglJ Med, 354:2498-2500. 
  • Karthikeyan VJ, et al. 2011. Are angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers safe in pregnancy: a report of ninety-one pregnancies. J Hypertens, 29(2):396-399. 
  • Lennestal R, et al. 2009. Maternal use of antihypertensive drugs in early pregnancy and delivery outcome, notably the presence of congenital heart defects in the infants. Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 65(6):615-625. 
  • Lip GYH, et al. 1997. Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors in early pregnancy. Lancet, 350:1446-1447. 
  • Merck Sharp and Dohme Corp. 2018. Prinivil product label. Moretti ME, et al. 2012. The fetal safety of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers. Obstet Gynecol Int; 2012:658310.  
  • Moretti ME, et al. 2012. The fetal safety of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers. Obstet Gynecol Int2012:658310.  
  • National Collaborating Centre for Women’s and Children’s Health (UK). 2011. Hypertension in Pregnancy. Appendix O. Safety of commonly used antihypertensive drugs during breastfeeding. NICE ClinicalGuidelines, No. 107. London: RCOG Press. 
  • Polifka JE.2012.Is there an embryopathy associated with first-trimester exposure to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor antagonists? A critical review of the evidence. Birth Defects Res (Part A), 94:576-598. 
  • Pryde PG, et al. 1993. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor fetopathy. J Am Soc Nephrol,3:1575-1582.
  • Rosa F, Bosco L. 1991. Infant renal failure with maternal ACE inhibition. Am JObstetGynecol, 161(1 Part 2):273 (abstract).  
  • Tomlinson AJ, et al. 2000. Malignant primary hypertension in pregnancy treated with lisinopril. Ann Pharmacother,34(2):180-182. 
  • U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).1992.Upgraded warning on the use of ACE inhibitors during pregnancy. 
  • Yip SK, et al.1998. Exposure to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors duringfirsttrimester: is it safe to fetus? Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand; 77:570-571. 


Lisinopril

Selected References:

  • Atmaca M, Kuloglu M, Tezcan E, Canatan H, Gecici,O. 2002. Quetiapine is not associated with increase in prolactin secretion in contrast to haloperidol. Arch Med Res 33:562-5. 
  • Beumont PJ, Gelder MG, Friesen HG, et al. 1974. The effects of phenothiazine on endrocrine function: I Patients with inappropriate lactation and amenorrhoea. Br J Psychiatry. 124:413–9.  
  • Crawford AM, Beasley CM Jr, Tollefson GD. 1997. The acute and long-term effect of olanzapine compared with placebo and haloperidol on serum prolactin concentrations. Schizophr Res. 26:41–54.  
  • Cho H, et al. 2025. Antipsychotic use during pregnancy and outcomes in pregnant individuals and newborns. J Affect Disord. 373:495-504. 
  • Diav-Citrin O, Shechtman S, Ornoy S, et al. 2005. Safety of haloperidol and penfluridol in pregnancy: a multicenter, prospective, controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 66:317-322. 
  • Dieulangard P et al. 1966. Sur un cas d’ectro-phocomelie peutetre d’origine medicamenteuse. Bull Fed Gynecol Obstet 18:85-87. 
  • Fiore L, Scapagnini U, Canonico PL. 1987. Effect of dihydroergocryptine and dihydroergocristine on cyclic AMP accumulation and prolactin release in vitro: Evidence for a dopaminomimetic action. Horm Res. 25:171–177.  
  • Kallen et al. 2013 The use of central nervous system active drugs during pregnancy. Pharmaceuticals 6(10):1221-1286. 
  • Kopelman AE et al. 1975. Limb malformations following maternal use of haloperidol. J Am Med Assoc 231:62-64. 
  • Langer G, Puhringer W. 1980. Haloperidol and droperidol treatment in schizophrenics. Clinical application of the “prolactin-model”. Acta Psychiatr Belg. 80:574–83.  
  • Maguire GA. 2002. Prolactin elevation with antipsychotic medications: mechanisms of action and clinical consequences. J Clin Psychiatry. 63(suppl 4):56-62. 
  • Straub L, Hernández-Díaz S, Bateman BT, et al. 2022. Association of Antipsychotic Drug Exposure in Pregnancy With Risk of Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A National Birth Cohort Study. JAMA Intern Med. 182(5):522–533. 
  • Straub L, et al. 2026. Congenital malformation risk following prenatal antipsychotic exposure: a systematic safety surveillance approach. BMJ Ment Health. 29(1):e302270.  
  • Turkington RW. 1972. Prolactin secretion in patients treated with various drugs: Phenothiazines, tricyclic antidepressants, reserpine, and methyldopa. Arch Intern Med. 130:349–354.  
  • Turkington RW. 1972. Serum prolactin levels in patients with gynecomastia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 34:62–66.  
  • Uguz F. 2016. Breastfed infants exposed to combined antipsychotics: Two case reports. Am J Ther. 23:e1962–e1964 
  • Uguz F. 2019. Adverse events in a breastfed infant exposed to risperidone and haloperidol. Breastfeed Med. 14:683–684. 
  • Uguz F. 2021. A new safety scoring system for the use of psychotropic drugs during lactation. Am J Ther. 28:e118–e126 
  • Van Waes A, Van de Velde E. 1969. Safety evaluation of haloperidol in the treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum. J Clin Pharmacol 9:224-227. 
  • Wang, E., et al.. 2026. Correction: Comparative safety of antipsychotic medications and mood stabilizers during pregnancy: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of congenital malformations and prenatal outcomes. CNS Drugs 40, 841–863. 
  • Whalley LJ, Blain PG, Prime JK. 1981. Haloperidol secreted in breast milk. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 282:1746–1747. 
  • Yoshida K, Smith B, Craggs M, et al. 1997. Investigation of pharmacokinetics and possible adverse effects in infants exposed to tricyclic antidepressants in breast-milk. J Affect Disord. 43:225–237. 
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Lisinopril

Selected References:

  • Asghar FA, et al. 2024. LTRA use in pregnancy: a systematic review on their safety and association with congenital anomalies’. JRGM, 13(2):1-8.   
  • Committee on Drugs. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2001. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics. 108:776-789. 
  • Cossette B, et al. 2014. Relative perinatal safety of salmeterol vs formoterol and fluticasone vs budesonide use during pregnancy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 112(5):459-464. 
  • Eltonsy S, et al. 2011. Beta2-agonists use during pregnancy and the risk of congenital malformations. Birth Defects Research Clin Mol Teratol. 91(11):937-947. 
  • Gregersen TL, Ulrik CS. 2013. Safety of bronchodilators and corticosteroids for asthma during pregnancy: what we know and what we need to do better. J Asthma Allergy. 6:117-125. 
  • Lim A, et al. 2013. Asthma drugs in pregnancy and lactation. Aust Prescr. 36(5):150–153. 
  • Lim A, et al. 2011. Systematic review of the safety of regular preventive asthma medications during pregnancy. Ann Pharmacother. 45(7-8):931-945. 
  • Namazy J, Schatz M. 2018. Management of asthma during pregnancy: optimizing outcomes and minimizing risk. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 39(01):29-35. 
  • National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Working Group. 2004. Report on managing asthma during pregnancy: Recommendations for pharmacologic treatment. Update 2004. NIH publication NO.05-5236. Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services; National Institutes of Health; National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. 
  • Peterka M, ET AL. 2021. Anti-asthma Drugs Formoterol and Budesonide (Symbicort) Induce Orofacial Clefts, Gastroschisis and Heart Septum Defects in an In Vivo Model. In Vivo. 35(3):1451-1460.  
  • Tamasi L, et al. 2005. The management of bronchial asthma during pregnancy – Hungarian experiences. [Article in Hungarian] Orv Hetil. 146(45):2035-2039. 
  • Wilton LV, Shakir SA. 2002. A post-marketing surveillance study of formoterol (Foradil). Its use in general practice in England. Drug Saf. 25:213-223. 


Lisinopril

Selected References:

  • Aase JM, et al. 1970. Children of mothers who took LSD in pregnancy. Lancet; 1:100-1.  
  • Alexander GJ, et al. 1970. Lysergic acid diethylamide intake in pregnancy: fetal damage in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther; 173(1):48-59. 
  • Baquiran M, et al. 2023. Lysergic acid diethylamide toxicity. [Updated 2023 Dec 17]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553216/  
  • Cohen MM, et al. 1968. The effect of LSD-25 on the chromosomes of children exposed in utero. Pediat Res 2:486-492.  
  • Das, Saibal et al. 2016. Lysergic acid diethylamide: a drug of ‘use’?. Therapeutic advances in psychopharmacology; 6(3):214-28.  
  • Fabro S, Sieber SM. 1968.  Is lysergide a teratogen? Lancet 1(7543):639.  
  • Fuentes Jet al. 2020. Therapeutic Use of LSD in Psychiatry: A Systematic Review of Randomized-Controlled Clinical Trials. Frontiers in Psychiatry; 10.943. 
  • Jacobson CB, Berlin CM. 1972. Possible reproductive detriment in LSD users. JAMA 222(11):1367-1373. 
  • Haden, M, & Woods, B. 2020. LSD overdoses: three case reports. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs; 81(1), 115-118. 
  • Long SY. 1972. Does LSD induce chromosomal damage and malformations? A review of the literature. Teratology; 6(1):75-90. 
  • McElhatton PR. 2000. Fetal effects of substances of abuse. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol; 38:194-5.  
  • McGlothlin WH, et al.1970. Effect of LSD on human pregnancy. JAMA.1; 212(9):1483-7. 
  • Mueller, B. A., Daling, J. R., Weiss, N. S., & Moore, D. E. (1990). Recreational drug use and the risk of primary infertility. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.), 1(3), 195–200.
  • Papac DI and Foltz RL. 1990. Measurement of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in human plasma by gas chromatography/negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry. J Anal Toxicol; 14(3):189-90. 
  • Robinson JT, et al. 1974. Chromosome aberrations and LSD. A controlled study in 50 psychiatric patients. J Psychiatry. 125(0):238-44. 
  • Zellweger H, et al. 1967. Is lysergic-acid diethylamide a teratogen? Lancet; 2(7525):1066-1068. 


Lisinopril

Selected References:  

  • Alwan S, et al. 2016. Safety of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in pregnancy: a review of current evidence. CNS Drugs, 30(6):499-515.  
  • Andersen JT, et al. 2014. Exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in early pregnancy and the risk of miscarriage. Obstet Gynecol, 124:655-661. 
  • Bandoli G, et al. 2020. Prenatal antidepressant use and risk of adverse neonatal outcomes. Pediatrics, 146(1):e20192493. 
  • Berard A, et al. 2017. Antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk of major congenital malformations in a cohort of depressed pregnant women: an updated analysis of the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort. BMJ Open, 7:e013372.  
  • Bonari L, et al. 2004. Perinatal risks of untreated depression during pregnancy. Can J Psychiatry, 49(11):726-735.  
  • Burch KJ and Wells BG. 1992. Fluoxetine/norfluoxetine concentrations in human milk. Pediatrics, 89:676-677.  
  • Chambers CD, et al. 1999. Weight gain in infants breastfed by mothers who take fluoxetine. Pediatrics, 104(5):I1-15.  
  • Chambers C, et al. 2006. Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. N Engl J Med, 354(6)579-587.  
  • Desaunay P, Eude LG, Dreyfus M, Alexandre C, Fedrizzi S, Alexandre J, Uguz F, Guénolé F. Benefits and Risks of Antidepressant Drugs During Pregnancy: A Systematic Review of Meta-analyses. Paediatr Drugs. 2023 May;25(3):247-265. doi: 10.1007/s40272-023-00561-2. Epub 2023 Feb 28. PMID: 36853497. 
  • Diav-Citrin O, et al. 2008. Paroxetine and fluoxetine in pregnancy: a prospective, multicenter, controlled, observational study. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 66(5):695-705.  
  • Gao SY, et al. 2017. Fluoxetine and congenital malformations: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 83(10):2134-2147.  
  • Goldstein DJ, Marvel DE. 1993. Psychotropic medications during pregnancy: risk to the fetus. JAMA, 270:2177. 
  • Goldstein DJ, et al. 1997. Effects of first-trimester fluoxetine exposure on the newborn. Obstet Gynecol, 89:713-8. 
  • Grigoriadis S, et al. 2013. The effect of prenatal antidepressant exposure on neonatal adaptation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry, 74(4):e309-20. 
  • Grigoriadis S, et al. 2019. Benzodiazepine use during pregnancy alone or in combination with an antidepressant and congenital malformations: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry, 80(4):18r12412.  
  • Huybrechts KF, et al. 2014. Antidepressant use in pregnancy and the risk of cardiac defects. N Engl J Med, 370:2397-2407. 
  • Huybrechts KF, et al. 2015. Antidepressant use late in pregnancy and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. JAMA, 313(21):2142-2151. 
  • Isenberg KE. 1990. Excretion of fluoxetine in human breast milk. J Clin Psychiatry, 51:169.  
  • Jimenez-Solem E et al. 2012. Exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and the risk of congenital malformations: a nationwide cohort study. BMJ, 2:e001148. 
  • Jordan S, et al. 2019. Antidepressant prescriptions, discontinuation, depression, and perinatal outcomes, including breastfeeding: a population cohort analysis. PLoS One, 14(11):e0225133. 
  • Kaplan et al. 2017. Maternal SSRI discontinuation, use, psychiatric disorder and the risk of autism in children: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 83(12):2798-2806. 
  • Kieviet N, et al. 2015. Risk factors for poor neonatal adaptation after exposure to antidepressants in utero. Acta Paediatr, 104(4):384-391.  
  • Kristensen JH, et al. 1999. Distribution and excretion of fluoxetine and norfluoxetine in human milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 48(4):521-527.  
  • Levinson-Castiel R, et al. 2006. Neonatal abstinence syndrome after in utero exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in term infants. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 160:173-176.  
  • Louik C, et al, 2007. First-trimester use of selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors and the risk of birth defects. N Engl J Med, 356:2675-2683.  
  • Lusskin SI, et al. 2018. Pharmacotherapy for Perinatal Depression. Clin Obstet Gynecol, 61(3):544-561.  
  • Masarwa R, et al. 2019. Prenatal exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk for persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and network meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 220(1):57.e1-57.e13. 
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  • Moses-Kolko, E.L. et al. 2005. Neonatal signs after late in utero exposure to serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Literature review and implications for clinical applications. J Am Med Assoc, 293: 2372-2383.  
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  • Nulman I, et al. 2002. Child development following exposure to tricyclic antidepressants or fluoxetine throughout fetal life: a prospective, controlled study. Am J Psychiatry, 159(11):1889-1895. 
  • Ornoy A. 2017. Neurobehavioral risks of SSRIs in pregnancy: Comparing human and animal data. Reprod Toxicol, 72:191-200. 
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  • Sanz E, et al. 2005. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in pregnant women and neonatal withdrawal syndrome: a database analysis. Lancet, 365:482-487.  
  • Sjaarda LS et al. 2020. Urinary selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors across critical windows of pregnancy establishment: a prospective cohort study of fecundability and pregnancy loss. Fertil Steril, 114(6):1278-1287. 
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  • Salisbury AL, et al. 2016. The roles of maternal depression, serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment, and concomitant benzodiazepine use on infant neurobehavioral functioning over the first postnatal month. Am J Psychiatry, 173(2):147-157. 
  • Sylvester C, et al. 2019. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and fertility: considerations for couples trying to conceive. Harv Rev Psychiatry, 27(2):108-118. 
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  • Vaidya R, et al. 2024. Non epileptiform abnormal neurologic signs in newborns following in-utero psychotropic medication exposure. Journal of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine. 17(5):717-722.  
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  • Wen SW, et al. 2006. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 194(4):961-966.  
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  • Yang F, et al. 2018. Prenatal paternal selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors use and risk of ADHD in offspring. Pediatrics, 141(1):e20171081.  
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