Hepatitis C

Selected References:  

  • Barlow KM, Mok JY. 1993. Dizygotic twins discordant for HIV and hepatitis C virus. Arch Dis Child, 68(4):507.  
  • Bellini P, et al. 1999. Effects of hepatitis C virus infection on pregnancy outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 180(1):S67. 
  • Cilla G, et al. 1992. Maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. Peridatr Infects Dis, J 11:417. 
  • Committee on Obstetric Practice, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: ACOG committee opinion. Breastfeeding and the risk of hepatitis C virus transmission. Number 220, August 1999. Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 66:307-308. 
  • Connell LE, et al. 2011. Maternal hepatitis B and hepatitis C carrier status and perinatal outcomes. Liver Int, 31(8):1163-1170.  
  • Degos F, et al. 1991. Neonatal transmission of HCV from mother with chronic hepatitis. Lancet, 338(8769):758. 
  • Dienstag JL. 1997. Sexual and perinatal transmission of hepatitis C. Hepatol, 26(3 Suppl 1):66S-70S.  
  • European Paediatric Hepatitis C Virus Network. 2001. Effects of mode of delivery and infant feeding on the risk of mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus. European Paediatric Hepatitis C Virus Network. BJOG, 108(4):371-377.  
  • Giacchino R, et al. 1995. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C. Lancet, 345(8957): 1123.  
  • Gibb DM, et al. 2000. Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus: evidence for preventable peripartum transmission. Lancet, 356(9233):904-907. 
  • Giovanninni M, et al. 1990. Maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus and HIV infections: a possible interaction. Lancet, 335(8698):1166.  
  • Gurakan B, et al. 1994. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. N Eng J Med, 331:399-400.  
  • Havens PL, et al. 2020. Updated CDC Recommendations for universal hepatitis C virus screening among adults and pregnant women: Implications for clinical practice. JAMA, 323(22):2258-2259. 
  • Hofer H, et al. 2010. Seminal fluid ribavirin levels and functional semen parameters in patients with chronic hepatitis C on antiviral combination therapy. J Hepatol, 52:812-816. 
  • Hofny ERM, et al. 2011. Semen and hormonal parameters in men with chronic hepatitis C infection. Fertil Steril, 95(8):2557-2559.  
  • Hughes BL, et al. 2024. Pregnancy outcomes in patients with hepatitis C virus infection. Obstet Gynecol, 144(4):501-506. 
  • Jabeen T, et al. 2000. Pregnancy and pregnancy outcome in hepatitis C type 1b. QJM, 93(9):597-601.  
  • Karampatou A, et al. 2018. Premature ovarian senescence and a high miscarriage rate impair fertility in women with HCV. J Hepatol, 68(1):33-41.  
  • Kage M, et al. 1997. Hepatitis C virus RNA present in saliva but absent in breast-milk of the hepatitis C carrier mother. J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 12:518-521.  
  • Kuroki T, et al. 1991. Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Infect Dis, 164(2):427-428. 
  • La Vignera S, et al. 2012. Sperm DNA damage in patients with chronic viral C hepatitis. Eur J Intern Med, 23(1):e19-e24. 
  • Lam JPH, et al. 1993. Infrequent vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Infect Dis, 167(3):572-576. 
  • Leikin E, Reinus JF. 1997. Six-year follow-up of children of mothers with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 176(1):S37. 
  • Levy R, et al. 2000. Transmission risk of hepatitis C virus in assisted reproductive techniques. Hum Reprod, 15(4):810-816. 
  • Lin HH, et al. 1995. Absence of infection in breast-fed infants born to hepatitis C virus-infected mothers. J Pediatr, 126:589-591.  
  • Lynch-Salamon DI, Combs CA. 1992. Hepatitis C in obstetrics and gynecology. Obstet Gynecol, 79(4):621-629. 
  • Maccabruni A, et al. 1995. High efficiency of vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus among babies born to human immunodeficiency virus-negative women. Pediatr Infect Dis J, 14:921-922.  
  • Muramaki J, et al. 2012. Maternal high viral load and fetal exposure in the birth canal. Hepatol Res, 42(7):648-657. Maternal high viral load and fetal exposure in the birth canal. Hepatol Res, 42(7):648-657. 
  • Nagata I, et al. 1992. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Pediatr, 120:432-434. 
  • Ohto H, et al. 1994. Transmission of hepatitis C virus from mothers to infants. N Engl J Med, 330(11):744-750.  
  • Pergam SA, et al. 2008. Pregnancy complications associated with hepatitis C: data from a 2003-2005 Washington state birth cohort. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 199(1):38.e1-38.e9.  
  • Polis C, et al. 2007. Impact of maternal HIV coinfection on the vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis, 44(8):1123-1131.  
  • Polywka S, et al. 1999. Low risk of vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus by breast milk. Clin Infect Dis, 29(5): 1327-1329.  
  • Rios J, et al. 2024. Overview of hepatitis C in pregnancy: screening, management, and treatment. J Ped Infect Dis Soc, 13(5):S171-S178.  
  • Rosenthal P. 1993. Does maternal-neonatal transmission of hepatitis C occur–are we sure? Am J Gastroenterol, 88(8):1284-1286. 
  • Ruiz-Extremera A, et al. 2000. Follow-up of the transmission of hepatitis C to abies of human immunodeficiency virus-negative women: the role of breast-feeding in transmission. Pediatr Infect Dis, 19(6):511-516.  
  • Salemi JL, et al. 2014. Maternal hepatitis B and hepatitis C infection and neonatal neurological outcomes. J Viral Hepat, 21(11):e144-e153.  
  • Smith C, et al. 2022. Congenital co-infections among HIV-exposed infants born to mothers on antiretroviral treatment in the United States. Front Pediatr, 10:894627.   
  • Stokkeland K, et al. 2017. Pregnancy outcome in more than 5000 births to women with viral hepatitis: a population-based cohort study in Sweden. Eur J Epidemiol, 32(7):617-625. 
  • Thaler MM, et al. 1991. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lancet, 338(8758):17-18. 
  • Thomas SL, et al. 1998. A review of hepatitis C virus (HCV) vertical transmission: risks of transmission to infants born to mothers with and without HCV viraemia or human immunodeficiency virus infection. Int J Epidemiol 27(1):108-117.  
  • Wasuwanich P, et al. 2024. Hepatitis C prevalence and birth outcomes among pregnant women in the United States: A 2010-2020 populations study. Pathogens, 13(4):321. 
  • Wejstal R, Norkrans G. 1989. Chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis in pregnancy: outcome and possible transmission to the offspring. Scand J Infect Dis, 21(5):485-490.  
  • Wejstal R, et al. 1990. Mother to infant transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. J Med Virol, 30(3):178-180. 
  • Wejstal R, et al. 1992. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. Ann Intern Med, 117(11):887-890. 
  • Zanetti AR, et al. 1995. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lombardy Study Group on Vertical HCV Transmission. Lancet, 345:289-291.  
  • Zimmermann R, et al. 1995, Hepatitis C virus in breast milk. Lancet, 345:928.  

Hepatitis C

Selected References: 

  • Bassotti G, et al. 2019. Prucalopride for the treatment of constipation: a view from 2015 and beyond. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 13(3):257-262.  
  • Garnock-Jones KP. 2016. Prucalopride: A review in chronic idiopathic constipation. Drugs. 76(1):99-110. 
  • Motegrity® Prescribing Information. Updated 11/2020. Available online at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2020/210166s002lbl.pdf.  
  • Vijayvargiya P and Camilleri M. 2019. Use of prucalopride in adults with chronic idiopathic constipation. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 12(7):579-589. 

 

Hepatitis C

Selected References:

  • Apotex Corporation. Guanfacine extended release. Product label. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=1c492e87-3406-ddb8-aaf2-e609c2ded503. Accessed 15 July 2025. 
  • Kittel-Schneider S, et al. 2021. Parental ADHD in pregnancy and the postpartum period –A systematic review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Rev 124;63-77.  
  • Lee YR, et al. 2025. Guanfacine Use in the ICU for Management of Sedation Weaning. Clin Drug Investig. 45(4):169-173. 
  • Ornoy A. 2018. Pharmacological treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during pregnancy and lactation. Pharm Res 35(3):46.  
  • Ornoy A, et al. 2021. The Effects of Drugs used for the Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) on Pregnancy Outcome and Breast-feeding: A Critical Review. Curr Neuropharmacol. 19(11):1794-1804. 
  • Philipp E. 1980. Guanfacine in the treatment of hypertension due to pre-eclamptic toxaemia in thirty women. Br J clin Pharmac 10: 137S-140S.  
  • Scoten O, et al. 2024. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in pregnancy and the postpartum period. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 231(1):19-35.  
  • Srinivas C, et al. 2025. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Medication Use in Pregnancy and Risk of Preterm Birth: A Population-Based Cohort Study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. May 14. doi: 10.1111/ppe.70031. Online ahead of print. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hepatitis C

Selected References:

  • Anderson KN, et al. 2020. Maternal Use of Specific Antidepressant Medications During Early Pregnancy and the Risk of Selected Birth Defects. JAMA Psychiatry; 77(12):1246-1255.  Dodd S, et al. 1999. Determination of nefazodone and its pharmacologically active metabolites in human blood and breast milk by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl;730:249-55.
  • Dodd S, et al 2000. Nefazodone in the breast milk of nursing mothers: a report of two patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol; 20:717-8.
  • Einarson A, et al. 2003. A multicentre prospective controlled study to determine the safety of trazodone and nefazodone use during pregnancy. Can J Psychiatry 48(2):106-110.
  • Einarson A, et al. 2009. Incidence of major malformations in infants following antidepressant exposure in pregnancy: results of a large prospective cohort study. Can J Psychiatry 54(4):242 246.
  • Food and Drug Administration 2014. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/076037s011lbl.pdf [Accessed 7/2023].
  • Khazaie H, et al. 2013. Insomnia treatment in the third trimester of pregnancy reduces postpartum depression symptoms: a randomized clinical trial. Psychiatry Res. 210(3):901-5.
  • Rivett KF & Barcelona PS. 1974. Toxicology of trazodone. Mod Probl Pharmacopsychiatry 9:76-86.
  • Verbeeck RK, et al. 1986. Excretion of trazodone in breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 22(3):367-370.
  • Yapp P, et al. 2000. Drowsiness and poor feeding in a breast-fed infant: association with nefazodone and its metabolites. Ann Pharmacother 34(11):1269-1272.
  • Yaris F, et al. 2004. Newer antidepressants in pregnancy: prospective outcome of a case series. Reprod Toxicol; 19:235-238.

 

National Pregnancy Registry for Psychiatric Medications: There is a pregnancy registry for people who take psychiatric medications, such as nefazodone. For more information you can look at their website: https://womensmentalhealth.org/research/pregnancyregistry/

Hepatitis C

Selected References:

  • Andersen JB, et al. 2022. Pregnancy outcomes following maternal or paternal exposure to teriflunomide in the Danish MS population. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 59:103529. 
  • Bellinger DC. 2005. Teratogen update: lead and pregnancy. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 73(6):409-20.  
  • Brent R. 2009. Saving lives and changing family histories: appropriate counseling of pregnant women and men and women of reproductive age, concerning the risk of diagnostic radiation exposures during and before pregnancy. Am J OB/GYN 200(1):4-24.  
  • Brouwers MM, et al. 2007. Risk factors for hypospadias. Eur J Pediatr. 166(7):671–678.  
  • Buck Louis GM, et al. 2016. Paternal exposures to environmental chemicals and time-to-pregnancy: overview of results from the LIFE study. Andrology. 4(4):639-647.  
  • Carter T, et al. 2023. Paternal preconception modifiable risk factors for adverse pregnancy and offspring outcomes: a review of contemporary evidence from observational studies. BMC Public Health. 16;23(1):509. 
  • Colie CF. 1993. Male mediated teratogenesis. Reprod Toxicol 7:3-9.  
  • Cordier S. 2008. Evidence for a role of paternal exposures in developmental toxicity. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 102(2):176-81.  
  • Duijster JW, et al. 2017. [Zika virus and sexual transmission; when and for how long does one need to use a condom?]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 161(0):D1622. Dutch. 
  • Friedman JM. 2003. Implications of research in male mediated developmental toxicity to clinical counselors, regulators, and occupational safety officers. Advances in Male Mediated Developmental Toxicity, edited by Bernard Robaire and Barbara F. Hales. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.  
  • Hayama-Terada M, et al. 2023. Paternal occupational exposures and infant congenital heart defects in the Japan Environment and Children’s Study. Environ Health Prev Med. 28:12. 
  • Hills SL, et al. 2016. Transmission of Zika Virus Through Sexual Contact with Travelers to Areas of Ongoing Transmission – Continental United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 65(8):215-6.  
  • Jones A, et al. 2013. Outcomes of pregnancies fathered by solid-organ transplant recipients exposed to mycophenolic acid products. Prog Transplant. 23(2):153-7.  
  • Kim T, et al. 2023. Does the father’s job matter? Parental occupation and preterm birth in Korea. Epidemiol Health. 45:e2023078.  
  • Li X, et al. 2010. Parental occupation and risk of small-for-gestational-age births: a nationwide epidemiological study in Sweden. Hum Reprod. 25(4):1044-1050.  
  • Maciag MC, et al. 2022. Impact of prenatal exposure to smoking on child health. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1;65(2):388-396. 
  • Moreira J, et al. 2017. Sexually acquired Zika virus: a systematic review. Clin Microbiol Infect. 23(5):296-305.  
  • Pacey AA, et al. 2014. Modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for poor sperm morphology. Hum Reprod. Aug;29(8):1629-36.  
  • Pettigrew SM, et al. 2016. Paternal and joint parental occupational pesticide exposure and spina bifida in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997 to 2002. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 106(11):963-971.  
  • Polifka J & Friedman JM. 2003. Developmental toxicity of ribaviran/IFα combination therapy: is the label more dangerous than the drugs? Birth Defects Research (Part A) 67:8-12.  
  • Sallmé M, et al. 2000. Time to pregnancy among the wives of men occupationally exposed to lead. Epidemiology 11(2): 141-7.  
  • Savitz DA, et al. 1997. Male pesticide exposure and pregnancy outcome. Am J Epidemiol 146(12):1025-36.  
  • Savitz DA, et al. 1989. Effect of parents’ occupational exposures on risk of stillbirth, preterm delivery, and small-for-gestational-age infants. Am J Epidemiol. 129(6):1201-1218.  
  • Tielemans E, et al. 1999. Occupationally related exposures and reduced semen quality: a case-control study. Fert Steril 71:690-696.  
  • Trasler JM & Doerksen T. 1999. Teratogen Update: Paternal exposures-reproductive risks. Teratology 60(3):161-72.  
  • Uldbjerg CS, et al. 2024. Associations of maternal and paternal preconception and maternal pregnancy urinary phthalate biomarker and bisphenol A concentrations with offspring autistic behaviors: The PEACE study. Environ Res. 263(Pt 3):120253. 
  • Vine MF, 1996. Smoking and male reproduction: a review. Int J Androl 19(6):323-37.  
  • Weber-Schoendorfer C, et al. 2014. No evidence for an increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcome after paternal low-dose methotrexate: an observational cohort study. Rheumatology (Oxford). 53(4):757-63.  
  • Zhao L, et al. 2020. Parental smoking and the risk of congenital heart defects in offspring: An updated meta-analysis of observational studies. Eur J Prev Cardiol 27:1284–93. 
  • Zhu JL, et al. 2006. Occupational exposure to pesticides and pregnancy outcomes in gardeners and farmers: a study within the Danish National Birth Cohort. J Occup Environ Med 48(4):347-52.     

 

Hepatitis C
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