Selected References:

• ACOG Committee on Health Care for Underserved Women. 2011 (reaffirmed 2021). Committee Opinion No. 479: Methamphetamine abuse in women of reproductive age. Obstet Gynecol; 117:751-5. 
• Ajayi AF et al. 2020.  The physiology of male reproduction: Impact of drugs and their abuse on male fertility. Andrologia; 52(9): e13672. 
• Brecht ML, Herbeck DM. 2014. Pregnancy and fetal loss reported by methamphetamine-using women. Subst Abuse; 8:25-33.  
• Chang L, et al. 2004. Smaller subcortical volumes and cognitive deficits in children with prenatal methamphetamine exposure. Psych Res:Neuroimaging; 132:95-106.  
• Chomchai C, et al. 2016. Transfer of methamphetamine (MA) into breast milk and urine of postpartum women who smoked MA tablets during pregnancy: Implications for initiation of breastfeeding. J Hum Lact; 32:333-9. 
• Chu EK, et al. 2020. Behavior Problems During Early Childhood in Children With Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure. Pediatrics; 146(6):e20190270. 
• Cohen JM, et al. 2017. Placental complications associated with psychostimulant use in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol; 130(6):1192-201. 
• Courtney KE, Ray LA. 2014. Methamphetamine: an update on epidemiology, pharmacology, clinical phenomenology, and treatment literature. Drug Alcohol Depend; 1;143:11-21.  
• Derauf C, et al. 2012. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and inhibitory control among young school-age children. J Pediatr; 161(3):452-9. 
• Dinger J, et al. 2017. Methamphetamine consumption during pregnancy – effects on child health. Pharmacopsychiatry; 50(3):107-113.  
• Dyk Jv, et al. 2014. Maternal methamphetamine use in pregnancy and long-term neurodevelopmental and behavioral deficits in children. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol; 21(2):e185-96. 
• Eriksson M, et al. 1981. Amphetamine addiction and pregnancy II. Pregnancy, delivery and the neonatal period. Socio-medical aspects. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand; 60:253-259, 1981. 
• Garey JD, et al. 2020 Teratogen update: Amphetamines. Birth Defects Res; 112(15):1171-1182.  
• Golub M, et al. 2005. NTP CERHR Expert Panel Report on the reproductive and developmental toxicity of amphetamine and methamphetamine. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol; 74(6):471-584.  
• Good MM, et al. 2010. Methamphetamine use during pregnancy: maternal and neonatal implications. Obstet Gynecol; 116(2 Pt 1):330-4. 
• Gorman MC, et al. 2014. Outcomes in pregnancies complicated by methamphetamine use. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 211(4):429.e1-7. 
• Hamed M, et al. 2023. Psychoactive drugs and male fertility: impacts and mechanisms. Reprod Biol Endocrinol; 21,69. 
• Harst L, et al. 2021. Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure: Effects on Child Development–A Systematic Review. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 7;118(18):313-319 
• Hayer S, et al. 2024. Prenatal methamphetamine use increases risk of adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology; 231(3),356.e1–356.e15.  
• Heinonen OP, et al. 1977. Birth Defects and Drugs in Pregnancy. Littleton, MA: John Wright-PSG, pp 346-347, 439.  
• LaGasse LL, et al. 2011. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and neonatal neurobehavioral outcome in the USA and New Zealand. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 33(1):166-75. 
• LaGasse LL, et al. 2012. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and childhood behavior at 3 and 5 years of age. Pediatrics; 129(4):681-688. 
• Little BB, et al. 1988. Methamphetamine abuse during pregnancy: outcome and fetal effects. Obstet Gynecol; 72:541-4. 
• Kalaitzopoulos DR, et al. 2018. Effect of methamphetamine hydrochloride on pregnancy outcome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Addict Med;. 12(3):220-226. 
• Kittirattanapaiboon P, et al. 2017. Methamphetamine use and dependence in vulnerable female populations. Curr Opin Psychiatry; 30(4):247-252. 
• Kwiatkowski MA, et al. 2018. Cognitive outcomes in prenatal methamphetamine exposed children aged six to seven years. Compr Psychiatry; 80:24-33. 
• Newport DJ, et al. 2016. Prenatal psychostimulant and antidepressant exposure and risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. J Clin Psychiatry; 77(11):1538-45. 
• Nguyen D, et al. 2010. Intrauterine growth of infants exposed to prenatal methamphetamine: results from the infant development, environment, and lifestyle study. J Pediatr; 157(2):337-9. 
• Ornoy A. 2018. Pharmacological treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during pregnancy and lactation. Pharm Res; 35:46. 
• Pentecost R, et al. 2021. Scoping Review of the Associations Between Perinatal Substance Use and Perinatal Depression and Anxiety. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs; 50(4):382-391 
• Pflügner A, et al. 2018. [Methamphetamine consumption during pregnancy and its effects on neonates]. Klin Padiatr; 230(1):31-38.  
• Pierce SL, et al. 2019. Methamphetamine-associated cardiomyopathy in pregnancy. Mayo Clinic Proc; 94(3):551-554.  
• Rastegar-Pouyani N, et al. 2025. Prenatal Exposure to Methamphetamine and Its Association With Birth Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis. Birth defects research; 117(7), e2488. 
• Roussotte FF, et al. 2012. Frontostriatal connectivity in children during working memory and the effects of prenatal methamphetamine, alcohol, and polydrug exposure. Dev Neurosci; 34(1):43-57. 
• Sanjari Moghaddam H, et al. 2021. Effects of Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure on the Developing Human Brain: A Systematic Review of Neuroimaging Studies. ACS Chem Neurosci.  4;12(15):2729-2748. 
• Sankaran, D, et al. 2021. Methamphetamine: burden, mechanism and impact on pregnancy, the fetus, and newborn. J Perinatol.  
• Shah R, et al. 2012. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and short-term maternal and infant medical outcomes. Am J Perinatol; 29(5):391-400. 
• Smid MC, et al. 2019. Stimulant use in pregnancy: An under-recognized epidemic among pregnant women. Clin Obstet Gynecol; 62(1):168-184. 
• Smith LM, et al. 2003. Effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure on fetal growth and drug withdrawal symptoms in infants born at term. J Dev Behav Pediatr; 24(1):17-23.  
• Smith LM, et al. 2006. The infant development, environment, and lifestyle study: effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure, polydrug exposure, and poverty on intrauterine growth. Pediatrics; 118(3):1149-56. 
• Smith LM, et al. 2008. Prenatal methamphetamine use and neonatal neurobehavioral outcome. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 30(1):20-28.  
• Smith LM, et al. 2011. Motor and cognitive outcomes through three years of age in children exposed to prenatal methamphetamine. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 33(1):176-84. 
• Stewart JL, Meeker JE. 1997. Fetal and infant deaths associated with maternal methamphetamine abuse. J Anal Toxicol; 21(6):515-7. 
• Twomey J, et al. 2013. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure, home environment, and primary caregiver risk factors predict child behavioral problems at 5 years. The American journal of orthopsychiatry; 83(1):64-72. 
• Wouldes TA, et al. 2014. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children from 1 to 3 years. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 42:77-84. 
• Wouldes TA, Lester BM. 2023. Opioid, methamphetamine, and polysubstance use: perinatal outcomes for the mother and infant. Front Pediatr. 1:1305508. 
• Wright TE, et al. 2015. Methamphetamines and pregnancy outcomes. J Addict Med; 9(2):111-7. 

Selected References:

• Ali, R, et al. 2022. Review of recent evidence on the management of heartburn in pregnant and breastfeeding women. BMC gastroenterology; 22.1: 1-10. 
• Anderka M, et al. 2012. National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Medications used to treat nausea and vomiting of pregnancy and the risk of selected birth defects. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol; 94:22-30. 
• Andersen ABT, et al. 2012. Prenatal exposure to acid-suppressive drugs and the risk of toddler asthma: a population-based Danish cohort study. Alim Pharmacol Ther; 35:1190-1198. 
• Anderson P. 2018. Treating gastroesophageal reflux and heartburn while breastfeeding. Breastfeed Med;13(7):463–4. 
• Bank, T, et al. 2024. Challenges in Conducting Clinical Trials for Preeclampsia. Curr Hypertens Rep 26, 59–68.  
• Bor S, et al. 2017. The levels of pantoprazole in human breast milk and plasma: two compartment model. Neurogastroenterol Motil; 29:79–80. 
• Dehlink E, et al. 2009. First evidence of a possible association between gastric acid suppression during pregnancy and childhood asthma: a population-based register study. Clin Exp Allergy 39:246-53. 
• Diav-Citrin O, et al. 2005. The safety of proton pump inhibitors in pregnancy: a multicentre prospective controlled study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther; 21:269-75. 
• Erichsen R, et al. 2014. Maternal use of proton pump inhibitors during early pregnancy and the prevalence of hypospadias in male offspring. Am J Ther; 21: 254-259.  
• Gill SK et al. 2009. The safety of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) in pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol; 104(6): 1541-1545.  
• Hastie R, et al. 2019. Proton pump inhibitors and preeclampsia risk among 157 720 women: a Swedish population register–based cohort study. Hypertension; 73(5):1097–103. 
• Huijgen NA. 2016. Are proton-pump inhibitors harmful for the semen quality of men in couples who are planning pregnancy? Fertility and Sterility, 106(7), 1666-1672. 
• Kallen B. 1998. Delivery outcome after the use of acid-suppressing drugs in early pregnancy with special reference to omeprazole. Br J Obstet Gynaecol; 105:877-881. 
• Kallen B. 2001. Use of omeprazole during pregnancy—no hazard demonstrated in 955 infants exposed during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol; 96:63-68. 
• Keihani, S. et al. 2018. Proton-pump inhibitor use does not affect semen quality in subfertile men. Asian journal of andrology, 20(3), 290. 
• Lalkin A, et al. 1998. The safety of omeprazole during pregnancy: a multicenter prospective controlled study. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 179(3 Pt 1): 727-730.  
• Li, C, et al. 2020. Systematic review with meta‐analysis: the risks of proton pump inhibitors during pregnancy. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics; 51.4: 410-420. 
• Mahadevan, Uma. 2007. “Gastrointestinal Medications in Pregnancy.” Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology; 21(5): 849–77. 
• Majithia, R., & Johnson, D. A. (2012). Are Proton Pump Inhibitors Safe during Pregnancy and Lactation? 10. 
• Marshall JK, et al. 1998. Omeprazole for refractory gastroesophageal reflux disease during pregnancy and lactation. Can J Gastroenterol; 12: 225-227.  
• Matok I, et al. 2012. The safety of fetal exposure to proton-pump inhibitors during pregnancy. Dig Dis Sci; 57:699-705. 
• Mills K, et al. 2024. The effects of proton pump inhibitors during pregnancy on treatment of preeclampsia and related outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM; 6(10):101478.  
• Mumtaz, N, et al. 2022. Harmful Consequences of Proton Pump Inhibitors on Male Fertility: An Evidence from Subchronic Toxicity Study of Esomeprazole and Lansoprazole in Wistar Rats. International Journal of Endocrinology; 2022:4479261. 
• Nikfar S, et al. 2002. Use of proton pump inhibitors during pregnancy and rates of major malformations: a meta-analysis. Dig Dis Sci; 47:1526-9. 
• Neuman R, et al. 2022. Omeprazole Administration in Preterm Preeclampsia: a Randomized Controlled Trial to Study Its Effect on sFlt-1 (Soluble Fms-Like Tyrosine Kinase-1), PlGF (Placental Growth Factor), and ET-1 (Endothelin-1). Hypertension; 79(6):1297-1307.  
• Pasternak B, Hviid A. 2010. Use of proton-pump inhibitors in early pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. N Engl J Med; 363:2114-2123.  
• Saito J, et al. 2020. Esomeprazole During Pregnancy and Lactation: Esomeprazole Levels in Maternal Serum, Cord Blood, Breast Milk, and the Infant’s Serum. Breastfeeding Medicine; 15(9):598-601. 
• Thélin CS, & Richter JE. 2020. Review article: the management of heartburn during pregnancy and lactation. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics; 51(4), 421–434. 
• Yitshak-Sade M, et al. 2016. Prenatal exposure to H2 blockers and to proton pump inhibitors and asthma development in offspring. J Clinic Pharmacol; 56: 116-123. 

Selected References:

• Amstrong, C. 2008. ACOG Guidelines on Psychiatric Medication Use During Pregnancy and Lactation. Am Fam Physician; 78(6):772-778. 
• Eberhard-Gran MM, et al. 2006. Use of psychotropic medications in treating mood disorders during lactation: practical recommendations. CNS Drugs; 20(3):187-98. 
• Frey OR, et al. 1999. Adverse effects in a newborn infant breast-fed by a mother treated with doxepin. Ann Pharmacother; 33(6):690-3. 
• Iqbal M. 1999. Effects of Antidepressants During Pregnancy and Lactation. Ann Clin Psychiatry; 11(4):237-56. 
• Kemp J, et al. 198. Excretion of doxepin and N-desmethyldoxepin in human milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 20:497-9. 
• Kirchheiner J, et al. 2005. Impact of the CYP2D6 ultra-rapid metabolizer genotype on doxepin pharmacokinetics and serotonin in platelets. Pharmacogenet Genomics; 15(8):579–87. 
• Matheson I, et al. 1985. Respiratory depression caused by N-desmethyldoxepin in breast milk. Lancet 2: 1124. 
• McElhatton PR, et al. 1996. The outcome of pregnancy in 689 women exposed to therapeutic doses of antidepressants. A collaborative study of the European Network of Teratology Information Services (ENTIS). Reprod Toxicol; 10:285-94. 
• Miller M, et al. 2020. Sleep Pharmacotherapy for Common Sleep Disorders in Pregnancy and Lactation. Chest; 157(1):184-197.  
• Nulman I, et al. 1997. Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to antidepressant drugs. N Engl J Med; 336:258-62. 
• Steiner M. 2012. Prenatal exposure to antidepressants: how safe are they? Am J Psychiatry; 169(11): 1130–1132. 
• Venkatesh KK, et al. 2017. Impact of antidepressant treatment during pregnancy on obstetric outcomes among women previously treated for depression: an observational cohort study. J Perinatol; 37(9):1003-1009. 

Selected References:

• Benyamini L, et al. 2005. The safety of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and cefuroxime during lactation. Ther Drug Monit. 27(4):499–502. 
• Boissiere-O’Neill T, et al. 2026. Exposure to Systemic Antimicrobials During Pregnancy and Risk of Miscarriage: A Population-Based Registry Study. BJOG 133(7):1394–1404. 
• Chu YN, et al. 2019. Toxic epidermal necrolysis in an infant induced by drug intake through breast milk. Dermatologica Sinica. 37(2):86–89. 
• Crider KS, et al. 2009. Antibacterial medication use during pregnancy and risk of birth defects: National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 163(11), 978–985. 
• Czeizel AE, et al. 2001. Use of cephalosporins during pregnancy and in the presence of congenital anomalies: a population-based, case-control study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 184(6):1289-1896. 
• Ilett KF, et al. 2006. Transfer of probenecid and cephalexin into breast milk. Ann Pharmacother. 40(5):986–989. 
• Ito S, et al. 1993. Prospective follow-up of adverse reactions in breast-fed infants exposed to maternal medication. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 168(5):1393–1399. 
• Kafetzi D, et al. 1981. Passage of cephalosporins and amoxicillin into the breast milk. Acta Paediatr Scand. 70(3):285-288.  
• Rau A, et al. 2024. Management of Acne in Pregnancy, Am J Clin Dermatol. 25(3):465-471.  
• Saad AF, et al. 2025. Prophylactic Oral Cephalexin and Metronidazole Compared With Placebo After Cesarean Delivery to Reduce Infection Complications in Women With Obesity: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Obstet Gynecol. 146(1):113-120.  
• Teva Pharmaceuticals. 2020. Cephalexin product label. Available at: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=19307ff0-71de-477b-965d-ea243e5ede3a. [Accessed April 4 2026] 

Selected References:

• Anderson PO. 2021. Monoclonal antibodies during breastfeeding. Breastfeeding Medicine. 16(8): 591-93. 
• Noseda R, et al. 2024. Safety of Monoclonal Antibodies Inhibiting PCSK9 in Pregnancy: Disproportionality Analysis in VigiBase®. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 116(2)346-350. 
• Praluent® Prescribing Information. Available online at: https://www.regeneron.com/downloads/praluent_pi.pdf. Accessed April 1, 2026 
• Vuignier Y, et al. 2021. Exposure to alirocumab during the first trimester of pregnancy: A case report. Birth Defects Research. 113(15): 1156–60.