Selected References:

• Bosworth, O. M., Padilla-Azain, M. C., Adgent, M. A., Spieker, A. J., Wiese, A. D., Pham, A., Leech, A. A., Grijalva, C. G., & Osmundson, S. S. (2024). Prescription Opioid Exposure During Pregnancy and Risk of Spontaneous Preterm Delivery. JAMA network open, 7(2), e2355990. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.55990 
• Brogly SB, Velez MP, Werler MM, Li W, Camden A, Guttmann A. Prenatal Opioid Analgesics and the Risk of Adverse Birth Outcomes. Epidemiology. 2021 May 1;32(3):448-456. doi: 10.1097/EDE.0000000000001328. PMID: 33625160; PMCID: PMC8011506. 
• Broussard CS, et al. 2011. Maternal treatment with opioid analgesics and risk for birth defects. American Journal of Obstetrics and     Gynecology, 204(4): 314.e1-314.e11. 
• Cobrinik RW et al. 1995. The effect of maternal narcotic addiction on the newborn infant. Pediatrics 24:288-304. 
• Collins LR, et al. 2005: Prolonged morphine exposure in utero causes fetal and placental vasoconstriction: a case report. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med;17:417-21. 
• Daud AN, et al. 2015. P-glycoprotein-mediated drug interactions in pregnancy and changes in the risk of congenital anomalies: a case-reference study. Drug Safety, 38(7):651-659. 
• Feilberg FL, et al. Excretion of morphine in human breast milk. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 33(5):426-428. 
• Ghasemi-Esmailabad S, et al. 2022. The effects of morphine abuse on sperm parameters, chromatin integrity and apoptosis in men. JBRA Assist Reprod, 26(3):444-449.  
• Interrante JD, et al. 2017. Risk comparison for prenatal use of analgesics and selected birth defects, National Birth Defects Prevention Study 1997-2011. Annals of Epidemiology, 27(9):Epub ahead of print. 
• Ito, S. 2018. Opioids in breast milk: Pharmacokinetic principles and clinical implications. J Clin Pharmacol, 58 Suppl 10:S151-S163.  
• Larson, JJ, et al. 2019. Cognitive and behavioral impact on children exposed to opioids during pregnancy. Pediatrics, 142(2):e20190514.  
• Lind JN, et al. 2017. Maternal use of opioids during pregnancy and congenital malformations: A systematic review. Pediatrics, 139(6):e20164131. 
• Rothman KJ,, et al. 1979. Exogenous hormones and other drug exposures of children with congenital heart disease. American Journal of Epidemiology, 109(4):433-439. 
• Wang, Y., Berger, L., Durrance, C., Kirby, R. S., Kuo, D., Pac, J., & Ehrenthal, D. B. (2023). Duration and Timing of In Utero Opioid Exposure and Incidence of Neonatal Withdrawal Syndrome. Obstetrics and gynecology, 142(3), 603–611. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000005289 

Selected References:  

• Barlow KM, Mok JY. 1993. Dizygotic twins discordant for HIV and hepatitis C virus. Arch Dis Child, 68(4):507.  
• Bellini P, et al. 1999. Effects of hepatitis C virus infection on pregnancy outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 180(1):S67. 
• Cilla G, et al. 1992. Maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. Peridatr Infects Dis, J 11:417. 
• Committee on Obstetric Practice, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: ACOG committee opinion. Breastfeeding and the risk of hepatitis C virus transmission. Number 220, August 1999. Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 66:307-308. 
• Connell LE, et al. 2011. Maternal hepatitis B and hepatitis C carrier status and perinatal outcomes. Liver Int, 31(8):1163-1170.  
• Degos F, et al. 1991. Neonatal transmission of HCV from mother with chronic hepatitis. Lancet, 338(8769):758. 
• Dienstag JL. 1997. Sexual and perinatal transmission of hepatitis C. Hepatol, 26(3 Suppl 1):66S-70S.  
• European Paediatric Hepatitis C Virus Network. 2001. Effects of mode of delivery and infant feeding on the risk of mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus. European Paediatric Hepatitis C Virus Network. BJOG, 108(4):371-377.  
• Giacchino R, et al. 1995. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C. Lancet, 345(8957): 1123.  
• Gibb DM, et al. 2000. Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus: evidence for preventable peripartum transmission. Lancet, 356(9233):904-907. 
• Giovanninni M, et al. 1990. Maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus and HIV infections: a possible interaction. Lancet, 335(8698):1166.  
• Gurakan B, et al. 1994. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. N Eng J Med, 331:399-400.  
• Havens PL, et al. 2020. Updated CDC Recommendations for universal hepatitis C virus screening among adults and pregnant women: Implications for clinical practice. JAMA, 323(22):2258-2259. 
• Hofer H, et al. 2010. Seminal fluid ribavirin levels and functional semen parameters in patients with chronic hepatitis C on antiviral combination therapy. J Hepatol, 52:812-816. 
• Hofny ERM, et al. 2011. Semen and hormonal parameters in men with chronic hepatitis C infection. Fertil Steril, 95(8):2557-2559.  
• Hughes BL, et al. 2024. Pregnancy outcomes in patients with hepatitis C virus infection. Obstet Gynecol, 144(4):501-506. 
• Jabeen T, et al. 2000. Pregnancy and pregnancy outcome in hepatitis C type 1b. QJM, 93(9):597-601.  
• Karampatou A, et al. 2018. Premature ovarian senescence and a high miscarriage rate impair fertility in women with HCV. J Hepatol, 68(1):33-41.  
• Kage M, et al. 1997. Hepatitis C virus RNA present in saliva but absent in breast-milk of the hepatitis C carrier mother. J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 12:518-521.  
• Kuroki T, et al. 1991. Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Infect Dis, 164(2):427-428. 
• La Vignera S, et al. 2012. Sperm DNA damage in patients with chronic viral C hepatitis. Eur J Intern Med, 23(1):e19-e24. 
• Lam JPH, et al. 1993. Infrequent vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Infect Dis, 167(3):572-576. 
• Leikin E, Reinus JF. 1997. Six-year follow-up of children of mothers with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 176(1):S37. 
• Levy R, et al. 2000. Transmission risk of hepatitis C virus in assisted reproductive techniques. Hum Reprod, 15(4):810-816. 
• Lin HH, et al. 1995. Absence of infection in breast-fed infants born to hepatitis C virus-infected mothers. J Pediatr, 126:589-591.  
• Lynch-Salamon DI, Combs CA. 1992. Hepatitis C in obstetrics and gynecology. Obstet Gynecol, 79(4):621-629. 
• Maccabruni A, et al. 1995. High efficiency of vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus among babies born to human immunodeficiency virus-negative women. Pediatr Infect Dis J, 14:921-922.  
• Muramaki J, et al. 2012. Maternal high viral load and fetal exposure in the birth canal. Hepatol Res, 42(7):648-657. Maternal high viral load and fetal exposure in the birth canal. Hepatol Res, 42(7):648-657. 
• Nagata I, et al. 1992. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. J Pediatr, 120:432-434. 
• Ohto H, et al. 1994. Transmission of hepatitis C virus from mothers to infants. N Engl J Med, 330(11):744-750.  
• Pergam SA, et al. 2008. Pregnancy complications associated with hepatitis C: data from a 2003-2005 Washington state birth cohort. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 199(1):38.e1-38.e9.  
• Polis C, et al. 2007. Impact of maternal HIV coinfection on the vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis, 44(8):1123-1131.  
• Polywka S, et al. 1999. Low risk of vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus by breast milk. Clin Infect Dis, 29(5): 1327-1329.  
• Rios J, et al. 2024. Overview of hepatitis C in pregnancy: screening, management, and treatment. J Ped Infect Dis Soc, 13(5):S171-S178.  
• Rosenthal P. 1993. Does maternal-neonatal transmission of hepatitis C occur–are we sure? Am J Gastroenterol, 88(8):1284-1286. 
• Ruiz-Extremera A, et al. 2000. Follow-up of the transmission of hepatitis C to abies of human immunodeficiency virus-negative women: the role of breast-feeding in transmission. Pediatr Infect Dis, 19(6):511-516.  
• Salemi JL, et al. 2014. Maternal hepatitis B and hepatitis C infection and neonatal neurological outcomes. J Viral Hepat, 21(11):e144-e153.  
• Smith C, et al. 2022. Congenital co-infections among HIV-exposed infants born to mothers on antiretroviral treatment in the United States. Front Pediatr, 10:894627.   
• Stokkeland K, et al. 2017. Pregnancy outcome in more than 5000 births to women with viral hepatitis: a population-based cohort study in Sweden. Eur J Epidemiol, 32(7):617-625. 
• Thaler MM, et al. 1991. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lancet, 338(8758):17-18. 
• Thomas SL, et al. 1998. A review of hepatitis C virus (HCV) vertical transmission: risks of transmission to infants born to mothers with and without HCV viraemia or human immunodeficiency virus infection. Int J Epidemiol 27(1):108-117.  
• Wasuwanich P, et al. 2024. Hepatitis C prevalence and birth outcomes among pregnant women in the United States: A 2010-2020 populations study. Pathogens, 13(4):321. 
• Wejstal R, Norkrans G. 1989. Chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis in pregnancy: outcome and possible transmission to the offspring. Scand J Infect Dis, 21(5):485-490.  
• Wejstal R, et al. 1990. Mother to infant transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. J Med Virol, 30(3):178-180. 
• Wejstal R, et al. 1992. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. Ann Intern Med, 117(11):887-890. 
• Zanetti AR, et al. 1995. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus. Lombardy Study Group on Vertical HCV Transmission. Lancet, 345:289-291.  
• Zimmermann R, et al. 1995, Hepatitis C virus in breast milk. Lancet, 345:928.  

Selected References: 

• Bassotti G, et al. 2019. Prucalopride for the treatment of constipation: a view from 2015 and beyond. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 13(3):257-262.  
• Garnock-Jones KP. 2016. Prucalopride: A review in chronic idiopathic constipation. Drugs. 76(1):99-110. 
• Motegrity® Prescribing Information. Updated 11/2020. Available online at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2020/210166s002lbl.pdf.  
• Vijayvargiya P and Camilleri M. 2019. Use of prucalopride in adults with chronic idiopathic constipation. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 12(7):579-589. 

Selected References:

• Apotex Corporation. Guanfacine extended release. Product label. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=1c492e87-3406-ddb8-aaf2-e609c2ded503. Accessed 15 July 2025. 
• Kittel-Schneider S, et al. 2021. Parental ADHD in pregnancy and the postpartum period –A systematic review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Rev 124;63-77.  
• Lee YR, et al. 2025. Guanfacine Use in the ICU for Management of Sedation Weaning. Clin Drug Investig. 45(4):169-173. 
• Ornoy A. 2018. Pharmacological treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during pregnancy and lactation. Pharm Res 35(3):46.  
• Ornoy A, et al. 2021. The Effects of Drugs used for the Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) on Pregnancy Outcome and Breast-feeding: A Critical Review. Curr Neuropharmacol. 19(11):1794-1804. 
• Philipp E. 1980. Guanfacine in the treatment of hypertension due to pre-eclamptic toxaemia in thirty women. Br J clin Pharmac 10: 137S-140S.  
• Scoten O, et al. 2024. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in pregnancy and the postpartum period. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 231(1):19-35.  
• Srinivas C, et al. 2025. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Medication Use in Pregnancy and Risk of Preterm Birth: A Population-Based Cohort Study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. May 14. doi: 10.1111/ppe.70031. Online ahead of print. 

Selected References:

• Anderson KN, et al. 2020. Maternal Use of Specific Antidepressant Medications During Early Pregnancy and the Risk of Selected Birth Defects. JAMA Psychiatry; 77(12):1246-1255.  Dodd S, et al. 1999. Determination of nefazodone and its pharmacologically active metabolites in human blood and breast milk by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl;730:249-55.
• Dodd S, et al 2000. Nefazodone in the breast milk of nursing mothers: a report of two patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol; 20:717-8.
• Einarson A, et al. 2003. A multicentre prospective controlled study to determine the safety of trazodone and nefazodone use during pregnancy. Can J Psychiatry 48(2):106-110.
• Einarson A, et al. 2009. Incidence of major malformations in infants following antidepressant exposure in pregnancy: results of a large prospective cohort study. Can J Psychiatry 54(4):242 246.
• Food and Drug Administration 2014. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/076037s011lbl.pdf [Accessed 7/2023].
• Khazaie H, et al. 2013. Insomnia treatment in the third trimester of pregnancy reduces postpartum depression symptoms: a randomized clinical trial. Psychiatry Res. 210(3):901-5.
• Rivett KF & Barcelona PS. 1974. Toxicology of trazodone. Mod Probl Pharmacopsychiatry 9:76-86.
• Verbeeck RK, et al. 1986. Excretion of trazodone in breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 22(3):367-370.
• Yapp P, et al. 2000. Drowsiness and poor feeding in a breast-fed infant: association with nefazodone and its metabolites. Ann Pharmacother 34(11):1269-1272.
• Yaris F, et al. 2004. Newer antidepressants in pregnancy: prospective outcome of a case series. Reprod Toxicol; 19:235-238.

National Pregnancy Registry for Psychiatric Medications: There is a pregnancy registry for people who take psychiatric medications, such as nefazodone. For more information you can look at their website: https://womensmentalhealth.org/research/pregnancyregistry/