Vitamin D

Selected References:

  • Achkar M, et al. 2015. Vitamin D status in early pregnancy and risk of preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 212:511.e1-7. 
  • Adrien N, et al. 2023. Early pregnancy vitamin D status and risk of select congenital anomalies in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Birth Defects Res; 115:290-301. 
  • Akhavizadegan H, Karbakhsh M. 2017. Comparison of serum vitamin D between fertile and infertile men in a vitamin D deficient endemic area: a case-control study. Urologia; 84(4):218-220. 
  • Allan KM, et al. 2015. Maternal vitamin D and E intakes during pregnancy are associated with asthma in children. Eur Respir J; 45(4):1027-1036. 
  • American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2024. Committee Opinion No. 495: Vitamin D: screening and supplementation during pregnancy. Committee on Obstetric Practice.  
  • Andersen LB, et al. 2015. Vitamin D insufficiency is associated with increased risk of first-trimester miscarriage in the Odense Child Cohort. Am J Clin Nutr. 102(3):633-638. 
  • Bodnar LM, et al. 2007. Maternal vitamin D deficiency increases the risk of preeclampsia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92(9):3517-3522. 
  • Bodnar LM, et al. 2014. Maternal vitamin D status and spontaneous preterm birth by placental histology in the US Collaborative Perinatal Project. Am J Epidemiol 179(2): 168-176. 
  • Brooke OG, et al. 1980. Vitamin D supplements in pregnant Asian women: effects on calcium status and fetal growth. Br Med J 280:751-754. 
  • Camargo CA Jr, et al. 2007. Maternal intake of vitamin D during pregnancy and risk of recurrent wheeze in children at 3 y of age. Am J Clin Nutr; 85:788-795. 
  • Caplan RH & Beguin EA. 1990. Hypercalcemia in a calcitriol-treated hypoparathyroid woman during lactation. Obstet Gynecol 76:485-489.  
  • Caretta N, et al. 2016. Hypovitaminosis D is associated with erectile dysfunction in type 2 diabetes. Endocrine; 53(3):831-838. 
  • Chen C, et al. 2022. Association between serum vitamin D level during pregnancy and recurrent spontaneous abortion: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Reprod Immunol; 88(3):e13582. 
  • Chen YH, et al. 2015. Maternal vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy elevates the risks of small for gestational age and low birth weight infants in Chinese population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab; 100(5):1912-1919. 
  • Cockburn F, et al. 1980. Maternal vitamin D intake and mineral metabolism in mothers and newborn infants. Br Med J; 281:11-13.  
  • Correa P, et al. 2025. Vitamin D Deficiency and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Western Countries: A Scoping Review. Nutrients; 17(15):2429.  
  • Cundy T, et al. 1987. Remission of hypoparathyroidism during lactation: evidence for a physiological role for prolactin in the regulation of vitamin D metabolism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf); 26:667-674. 
  • Daglar K, et al. 2016. Maternal serum vitamin D levels in pregnancies complicated by neural tube defects. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med; 29(2):298-302. 
  • De-Regil LM, et al. 2016. Vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews; 1: CD008873. 
  • Delvin EE, et l. 1986.  Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: effect on neonatal calcium homeostasis. J Pediatr; 109:328-334.  
  • Demay MB, et al. 2024. Vitamin D for the prevention of disease: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab; 109:1907-1947.  
  • Devereux G, et al. 2007. Maternal vitamin D intake during pregnancy and early childhood wheezing. Am J Clin Nutr; 85:853-859. 
  • Dovnik A, Mujezinović F. 2018. The Association of Vitamin D Levels with common pregnancy complications. Nutrients; 10:867. 
  • Dror DK. 2011. Vitamin D status during pregnancy: maternal, fetal, and postnatal outcomes. Curr Opinion Obstet Gynecol; 23:422-426. 
  • Durá-Travé T, Gallinas-Victoriano F. 2025. Vitamin D and Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR). Int J Mol Sci; 26(23):11422. 
  • Goodenday LS & Gordan GS. 1971. Fetal safety of vitamin D during pregnancy. Clin Res; 19:200. 
  • Goodenday LS & Gordan GS. 1971. No risk from vitamin D during pregnancy. Ann Intern Med; 75:807-808. 
  • Fung JL, et al. 2017. Association of vitamin D intake and serum levels with fertility: Results from the Lifestyle and Fertility Study. Fertil Steril; 108(2)L302-311. 
  • Handel MN, et al. 2017. Prenatal exposure to vitamin D from fortified margarine and risk of fractures in late childhood: period and cohort results from 222 000 subjects in the D-tect observational study. Br J Nutr; 117(6):872-881. 
  • Hansen S, et al. 2015. The long-term programming effect of maternal 25-hydroxyvitamin D in pregnancy on allergic airway disease and lung function in offspring after 20 to 25 years of follow-up. J Allergy Clin Immunol; 136(1):169-176.e2. 
  • Harvey NC, et al. 2014. Vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy: a systematic review. Health Technol Assess; 18(45):1-190. 
  • Haugen M, et al. 2009. Vitamin D supplementation and reduced risk of preeclampsia in nulliparous women. Epidemiology; 20(5):720-726. 
  • Haussler MR & McCain TA. 1977. Basic and clinical concepts related to vitamin D metabolism and action. N Engl J Med 297:1041-1050. 
  • Heckmatt JZ, et al. 1979. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D in pregnant Asian women and their babies. Lancet; 2:546-548. 
  • Holick MF, et al. 2012. Guidelines for preventing and treating vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency revisited. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism; 97(4): 1153–1158. 
  • Hollis BW. 2005. Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels indicative of vitamin D sufficiency: implications for establishing a new effective dietary intake recommendation for vitamin D. J Nutr; 135(2):317-322. 
  • Hollis BW & Wagner CL. 2004. Assessment of dietary vitamin D requirements during pregnancy and lactation. Am J Clin Nutr; 79(5):717-726.  
  • Hollis BW, et al. 2015. Maternal versus infant vitamin D supplementation during lactation: A randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics; 136(4): 625–634. 
  • Institute of Medicine, 2011. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Available at https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/13050/chapter/1.  
  • Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. 1997. Dietary Reference Intakes: Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D and Fluoride. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 
  • Jensen MB. 2014. Vitamin D and male reproduction. Nature Reviews Endocrinology; 10: 175-186.  
  • Krysiak R, et al. 2011. Hypoparathyroidism in pregnancy. Gynecol Endocrinol; 27:529-32. 
  • Lawlor DA, et al. 2013. Association of maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy with bone-mineral content in offspring: a prospective cohort study. Lancet; 381(9884):2176-2183. 
  • Lerchbaum E & Rabe T. 2014. Vitamin D and female fertility. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol; 26: 145-150. 
  • Lu M, et al. 2021. Effect of early and late prenatal vitamin D and maternal asthma status on offspring asthma or recurrent wheeze. J Allergy Clin Immunol; 147(4):1234-1241.e3.  
  • Mather KJ, et al. 1999. Maintenance of serum calcium by parathyroid hormone-related peptide during lactation in a hypoparathyroid patient. J Clin Endocrinol Metab; 84:424-427. 
  • Maxwell JD, et al. 1981. Vitamin D supplements enhance weight gain and nutritional status in pregnant Asians. Br J Obstet Gynecol; 88:987-991. 
  • Meek JY, et al. 2022. Policy Statement: Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk. Pediatrics; 150(1). 
  • Melough MM, et al. 2021. Maternal plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D during gestation is positively associated with neurocognitive development in offspring at age 4-6 years. J Nutr; 151(1):132-139. 
  • Mirzaei F, et al. 2011. Gestational vitamin D and the risk of multiple sclerosis in offspring. Ann Neurol; 70(1):30-40. 
  • Mohaghegh Z, et al. 2015. The relation of preeclampsia and serum level of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in mothers and their neonates: a case control study in Iran. Horm Metab Res; 47(4):284-288. 
  • Morales E, et al. 2012. Maternal Vitamin D Status in Pregnancy and Risk of Lower Respiratory Tract Infections, Wheezing, and Asthma in Offspring. Epidemiology; 23(1):64-71. 
  • Mulligan ML, et al. 2010. Implications of vitamin D deficiency in pregnancy and lactation. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 202:429.e1-9.  
  • Mumford SL, et al. 2018. Association of preconception serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations with livebirth and pregnancy loss: A prospective cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol; 6(9):725-732. 
  • Murphy PK, et al. 2010. An exploratory study of postpartum depression and vitamin D. J Am Psychiatr Nurses Assoc; 16(3): 170-177. 
  • Nasri K, et al. 2016. Maternal 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and the occurrence of neural tube defects in Tunisia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet; 134(2):131-134. 
  • Norman AW. 2008. From vitamin D to hormone D: fundamentals of the vitamin D endocrine system essential for good health. Am J Clin Nutr; 88(2):491S-499S. 
  • Oken E, et al. 2007. Diet during pregnancy and risk of preeclampsia or gestational hypertension. Ann Epidemiol. 17:663-668. 
  • Paffoni A, et al. 2014. Vitamin D deficiency and infertility: insights from in vitro fertilization cycles. J Clin Endocrinol Metab; 99(11):E2372-2376. 
  • Palacios C, et al. 2019. Vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews; 7:CD008873. 
  • Palacios C, et al. 2024. Vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev; 7(7):CD008873. 
  • Perez-Lopez F, et al. 2015. Effect of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy on maternal and neonatal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Fertil Steril; 103(5): 1278-1288e4.  
  • Piekoszewska-Ziętek P, et al. 2025. Influence of Vitamin D on Developmental Defects of Enamel (DDE) in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Nutrients; 17(8):1317. 
  • Raia-Barjat T, et al. 2021. Vitamin D deficiency during late pregnancy mediates placenta-associated complications. Sci Rep; 11(1):20708. 
  • Ramagopalan SV, et al. 2011. Relationship of UV exposure to prevalence of multiple sclerosis in England. Neurology. 76(16):1410-1414. 
  • Ribamar A, et al. 2020. Relationship between vitamin D deficiency and both gestational and postpartum depression. Nutr Hosp 37(6):1238-1245. 
  • Robinson M, et al. 2014. Low maternal serum vitamin D during pregnancy and the risk for postpartum depression symptoms. Arch Womens Ment Health 17(3): 213-219. 
  • Rude RK, et al. 1984. Postpartum resolution of hypocalcemia in a lactating hypoparathyroid patient. Endocrinol Jpn. 31:227-233. 
  • Sadegi-Nejad A, et al. 1980. Hypoparathyroidism and pregnancy: treatment with calcitriol. JAMA 243:254-255. 
  • Schneuer FJ, et al. 2014. Effects of maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in the first trimester on subsequent pregnancy outcomes in an Australian population. Am J Clin Nutr 99: 287-295. 
  • Singla R, et al. 2015. Vitamin-D deficiency is associated with gallbladder stasis among pregnant women. Dig Dis Sci. 60(9):2793-2799. 
  • Singla R, et al. 2015. Relationship between preeclampsia and vitamin D deficiency: a case control study. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 291(6):1247-1251. 
  • Sourander A, et al. 2021. Maternal vitamin D levels during pregnancy and offspring autism spectrum disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 90(11):790-797. 
  • Stafne, SN. 2020. Vitamin D and stress urinary incontinence in pregnancy: a cross-sectional study. BJOG 127(13):1704-1711. 
  • Staples J, et al. 2010. Low maternal exposure to ultraviolet radiation in pregnancy, month of birth, and risk of multiple sclerosis in offspring: longitudinal analysis. BMJ. 340:c1640.  
  • Sucksdorff M, et al. 2021. Maternal vitamin D levels and the risk of offspring attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021 Jan;60(1):142-151.e2. 
  • Sweeney LL, et al. 2010. Decreased calcitriol requirements during pregnancy and lactation, with a window of increased requirements immediately postpartum. Endocr Pract. 1-11. 
  • US Department of Health and Human Services National Institutes of Health. 2024. Vitamin D. Office of Dietary Supplements Dietary Supplement Fact Sheets. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/. Accessed July 2026.  
  • van Tienhoven et al. 2025. Vitamin D in Reproductive Health Disorders: A Narrative Review Focusing on Infertility, Endometriosis, and Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome. Int J Mol Sci; 26(5):2256. 
  • Veena SR, et al. 2017. Association between maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and offspring cognitive function during childhood and adolescence. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 26(3): 438-449. 
  • Vieth R & Holick MF. 2018. Chapter 57B – The IOM—Endocrine Society Controversy on Recommended Vitamin D Targets: In Support of the Endocrine Society Position. Vitamin D (Fourth Edition). D. Feldman, Academic Press: 1091-1107. 
  • Vinkhuyzen AAE, et al. 2017. Gestational vitamin D deficiency and autism spectrum disorder. BJPsych Open 3(2): 85-90. 
  • Visness CM, et al. 2015. Cord blood vitamin D concentrations are unrelated to atopy and wheeze in 2 diverse birth cohort studies. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 136(4):1108-10.e2. 
  • Vollú AL, et al. 2024. Are low serum levels of Vitamin D associated with dental developmental defects in primary teeth? A systematic review. Evid Based Dent; 25(2):110.  
  • Voltas N, et al. 2020. Effect of vitamin D status during pregnancy on infant neurodevelopment: The ECLIPSES Study. Nutrients. 12(10):3196. 
  • Wadhwa L, et al. 2020. Impact of Vitamin D Supplementation on Semen Quality in Vitamin D-Deficient Infertile Males with Oligoasthenozoospermia. J Obstet Gynaecol India; 70(1):44-49. 
  • Wagner CL, et al. 2013. A randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation in 2 community health center networks in South Carolina. Am J Obstet Gynecol 208(2):137.e1-13. 
  • Whitehouse AJ, et al. 2012. Maternal Serum Vitamin D Levels During Pregnancy and Offspring Neurocognitive Development. Pediatrics 129:485-493.  
  • World Health Organization. 2023. Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy. E-library of evidence for nutrition actions (eLENA). https://www.who.int/tools/elena/interventions/vitamind-supp-pregnancy. Accessed June 6 2024.  
  • Xu N, et al. 2025. Vitamin D Levels During Pregnancy and Dental Caries in Offspring. JAMA Netw Open; 8(12):e2546166.  
  • Zhang C, et al. 2008. Maternal plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations and the risk for gestational diabetes mellitus. PLoS One; 3(11):e3753.  
  • Zhang P, et al. 2024. Causal association between vitamin D and gestational diabetes mellitus: a two-sample Mendelian randomization study. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med; 37(1):2427760. 

Vitamin D

Selected References:

  • Adams J, et al. 2022. Neuropsychological effects in children exposed to anticonvulsant monotherapy during gestation: Phenobarbital, carbamazepine, and phenytoin. Epilepsy Behav; 127:108533. 
  • Antonucci R, et al. 2018. Maternal carbamazepine therapy and unusual adverse effects in a breastfed infant. Breastfeed Med; 13(2):155-157. 
  • Baker GA, et al. 2015. IQ at 6 years after in utero exposure to antiepileptic drugs: a controlled cohort study. Neurology; 84(4):382-390. 
  • Battino D, et al. 2024. Risk of major congenital malformations and exposure to antiseizure medication monotherapy. JAMA Neurol; 81(5):481-489. 
  • Bech BH, et al. 2014. Use of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy and risk of spontaneous abortion and stillbirth: population based cohort study. BMJ; 349:g5159. 
  • Birnbaum AK, et al. 2020. Antiepileptic Drug Exposure in Infants of Breastfeeding Mothers With Epilepsy. JAMA Neurol; 77(4):441-450. 
  • Bjork M-H, et al. 2022. Association of prenatal exposure to antiseizure medication with risk of autism and intellectual disability. JAMA Neurol. 79(7):672-681.  
  • Blotiere PO, et al. 2020. Risk of early neurodevelopmental outcomes associated with prenatal exposure to the antiepileptic drugs most commonly used during pregnancy: a French nationwide population-based cohort study. BMJ Open. 7;10(6):e034829. 
  • Bromley RL, et al. 2013. The prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders in children prenatally exposed to antiepileptic drugs. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 84(6):637-643. 
  • Bromley R, et al. 2023. Monotherapy treatment of epilepsy in pregnancy: congenital malformation outcomes in the child. Cochrane Database Syst Rev; 29;8(8):CD010224.  
  • Campbell E, et al. 2014. Malformation risks of antiepileptic drug monotherapies in pregnancy: updated results from the UK and Ireland Epilepsy and Pregnancy Registers. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry; 85(9):1029-1034. 
  • Canger R, et al. 1999. Malformations in offspring of women with epilepsy: a prospective study.  Epilepsia; 40(9):1231-1236. 
  • Craig JJ, et al. 2022. Epilepsy and pregnancy: identifying risks. Pract Neurol; 22(2):98-106. 
  • Daugaard CA, et al. 2020. Association of prenatal exposure to valproate and other antiepileptic drugs with intellectual disability and delayed childhood milestones. JAMA Netw Open; 3(11):e2025570. 
  • Cohen JM, et al. 2023. Comparative safety of antiseizure medication monotherapy for major malformations. Ann Neurol; 93(3):551-562. 
  • Cummings C, et al. 2011. Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to lamotrigine, sodium valproate and carbamazepine. Arch Dis Child; 96(7):643-647. 
  • Davanzo R, et al. 2013.  Italian Journal of Pediatrics; 39:50-61. 
  • Deshmukh U, et al. 2016. Behavioral outcomes in children exposed prenatally to lamotrigine, valproate, or carbamazepine. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 54:5-14. 
  • Fried S, et al. 2004.  Malformation rates in children of women with untreated epilepsy: a meta-analysis. Drug Saf; 27(3):197-202. 
  • Gaily E, et al. 2004. Normal intelligence in children with prenatal exposure to carbamazepine. Neurology 62:28-32. 
  • Gladstone DJ, et al. 1992. Course of pregnancy and fetal outcome following maternal exposure to carbamazepine and phenytoin: a prospective study. Reprod Toxicol; 6:257-261. 
  • Harden CL. 2008. Antiepileptic drug teratogenesis:  what are the risks for congenital malformations and adverse cognitive outcomes? Int Rev Neurobiol; 83:205-213. 
  • Hernandez-Diaz S, et al. 2000. Folic acid antagonists during pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. N Engl J Med; 343(22):1608-1614. 
  • Hernandez-Diaz S, et al. 2025. Use of Antiseizure Medications Early in Pregnancy and the Risk of Major Malformations in the Newborn. Neurology; 105(3):e213786.  
  • Holmes LB, et al. 2024. Facial dysmorphology in children exposed in pregnancy to anticonvulsant medications correlates with deficits in IQ. Am J Med Genet; 2024;194A:e63511. 
  • Honybun E, et al. 2026. Neurocognitive Outcomes of In Utero Exposure to Antiseizure Medication: An Australian Cohort Study. Neurology; 107(1):e218122 
  • Huber-Mollema Y, et al. 2020. Neurocognition after prenatal levetiracetam, lamotrigine, carbamazepine, or valproate exposure. J Neurol; 267(6):1724-1736. 
  • Husebye E, et al. 2020. Language impairment in children aged 5 and 8 years after antiepileptic drug exposure in utero – the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study. European Journal of Neurology; 27.3:667-675. 
  • Li Y, Meador KJ. 2022. Epilepsy and Pregnancy. Continuum (Minneap Minn); 28(1):34-54. 
  • Jones KL, et al. 1989.  Patterns of malformations in the children treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. N Engl J Med; 320(25):1661-1666. 
  • Kacirova I, et al. 2021. Therapeutic monitoring of carbamazepine and its active metabolite during the 1st postnatal month: Influence of drug interactions. Biomed Pharmacother; 137:111412. 
  • Kacirova I, et al. 2022. Carbamazepine and carbamazepine-epoxide concentrations in mothers, colostrum, and breastfed newborns: Comparison with concentrations determined during delivery and in the mature milk period. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy; 151:113176. 
  • Kallen AJB. 1994. Maternal carbamazepine and infant spina bifida. Reprod Toxicol 8(3):203-205. 
  • Kaplan YC, et al. 2021. Use of phenytoin, phenobarbital carbamazepine, levetiracetam lamotrigine and valproate in pregnancy and breastfeeding: risk of major malformations, dose-dependency, monotherapy vs polytherapy, pharmacokinetics and clinical implications. Curr Neuropharmacol; 19(11):1805-1824. 
  • Karain A, et al. 2025. Educational outcomes associated with prenatal exposure to antiseizure medications: A systematic literature review and meta-Analysis. Seizure; 32:37-45.  
  • Leite ML, et al. 2024. Obstetric and neonatal outcomes, antiseizure medication profile, and seizure types in pregnant women in a vulnerability state from Brazil. PLoS One; 1;19(4):e0291190. 
  • Meador KJ, et al. 2009. Cognitive function at 3 years of age after fetal exposure to antiepileptic drugs.  N Engl J Med; 360(16):1597-1605. 
  • Margulis A, et al. 2019. Relation of in-utero exposure to antiepileptic drugs to pregnancy during and size at birth. PLoS One; 14(8):e0214180. 
  • Mazzone PP, et al. 2023. Comparison of perinatal outcomes for women with and without epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol; 80(5):484-494. 
  • Meador KJ, et al. 2014. Breastfeeding in children of women taking antiepileptic drugs cognitive outcomes at age 6 years. JAMA Pediatr; 168(8):729-736. 
  • Morrell M. 1996. The new antiepileptic drugs and women:  efficacy, reproductive health, pregnancy and fetal outcome. Epilepsia 37(Suppl. 6):S34-S44. 
  • Novartis. (n.d.). Tegretol – Food and Drug Administration. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2025/018927Orig1s061;016608Orig1s122;020234Orig1s055lbl.pdf. Accessed July 2026. 
  • Nulman I, et al. 1997. Findings in children exposed in utero to phenytoin and carbamazepine monotherapy: independent effects of epilepsy and medications. Am J Med Genet; 68:18-24. 
  • O’Brien MD and Gilmour-White SK. 2005. Management of epilepsy in women treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. Postgrad Med J; 81(955):278-285. 
  • Ornoy A and Cohen E.  1996.  Outcome of children born to epileptic mothers treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. Arc Dis Child; 75:517-520 
  • Patel N, et al. 2018. Mood-stabilizing anticonvulsants, spina bifida, and folate supplementation: commentary. J Clin Psychopharmacol; 38(1):7-10. 
  • Rosa FW. 1991. Spina bifida in infants of women treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. N Engl J Med; 324(10)674-677. 
  • Samren EB, et al. 1999. Antiepileptic drug regimens and major congenital abnormalities in the offspring. Ann Neurol; 46(5):739-746. 
  • Scolnik D, et al. 1994. Neurodevelopment if children exposed in utero to phenytoin and carbamazepine monotherapy. JAMA; 271(10):767-770. 
  • Shawahna R, Zaid L. 2022. Concentrations of antiseizure medications in breast milk of lactating women with epilepsy: A systematic review with qualitative synthesis. Seizure; 98:57-70.  
  • Straub L, et al. 2026. Prenatal antiseizure drug exposure and risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in children: population based cohort study. BMJ; 392:e085725.  
  • Tang W, et al. 2023. Adverse perinatal pregnancy outcomes in women with schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Res; 262:156-167.  
  • Tomson T and Barrino D.  2008. Teratogenic effects of antiepileptic drugs. Seizure; 17(2):166-171. 
  • Tomson T and Klein P. 2015. Fine-tuning risk assessment with antiepileptic drug use in pregnancy. Neurology; 84(4):339-340. 
  • Tomson T, et al. 2015. Antiepileptic drugs and intrauterine death: A prospective observational study from EURAP. Neurology; 85(7):580-588. 
  • Tomson T, et al. 2018. Comparative risk of major congenital malformations with eight different antiepileptic drugs: a prospective cohort study of the EURAP registry. Lancet Neurol; 17(6):530-538. 
  • U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2026. Data and statistics on Spina Bifida. https://www.cdc.gov/spina-bifida/data/.  
  • Vajda F. 2014. Epilepsy: Effects of exposure to antiepileptic drugs during development. Nat Rev Neurol; 10:11-12. 
  • Vajda F, et al. 2018. Anti-epileptic drug exposure and risk of foetal death in utero. Acta Neurol Scand; 137(1):20-23. 
  • Wallace H, et al. 1998. Age-specific incidence and prevalence rates of treated epilepsy in an unselected population of 2,052,922 and age-specific fertility rates of women with epilepsy. Lancet; 352:1970-1973. 
  • Weston J, et al. 2016. Monotherapy treatment of epilepsy in pregnancy: congenital malformation outcomes in the child. Cochrane Database Syst Rev; 11:Cd010224. 
  • Wide K, et al. 2000. Psychomotor development and minor anomalies in children exposed to antiepileptic drugs in utero: A prospective population-based study. Dev Med Child Neurol; 42:87-92. 
  • Wiggs K, et al. 2020. Anti-seizure medication use during pregnancy and risk of ASD and ADHD in children. Neurology; 95(24):e3232-e3240.  

Vitamin D

Selected References:

  • Beex-Oosterhuis MM, et al. 2021. Clozapine treatment during pregnancy and the postpartum period: a systematic literature review. J Clin Psychiatry; 83(1):21r13952. 
  • Bolu A, et al.  2018. Low-dose clozapine-induced retrograde ejaculation. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci; 72(7):541-542. 
  • Borisch C, et al. 2012. Severe neutropenia in a newborn after clozapine therapy during pregnancy. Reprod Toxicol; 34:158. 
  • Damkier P & Videbach P. 2018. The safety of second-generation antipsychotics during pregnancy: a clinically focused review. CNS Drugs; 32:351–366. 
  • Dev VJ & Krupp P. 1995. Adverse event profile and safety of clozapine. Rev Contemp Pharmacother; 6:197–208. 
  • Grover S, Gupta S. 2025. Use of clozapine in pregnancy: a retrospective study from North India. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology; 45(4):353-355.  
  • Haddad PM, et al. 2004. Antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinaemia: mechanisms, clinical features and management. Drugs; 64(20):2291-2314. 
  • Husain K, et al. 2025. Limitations in Recent Study of Clozapine Use During Pregnancy. J Clin Psychopharmacol; 45(6):688-689. 
  • Imaz ML,et al. 2018. Clozapine use during pregnancy and lactation: A case-series report. Front Pharmacol; 9:264. 
  • Jing H, Tang X. 2026. Risk factors for drug-related gestational diabetes mellitus: a real-world pharmacovigilance study based on the FAERS database. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth; 26(1):687.  
  • Kulkarni J, et al. 2026. Clozapine safety in pregnancy: a clinical study. Schizophrenia Bulletin; 52(2):sbae132.  
  • Larsen ER, et al. 2015. Use of psychotropic drugs during pregnancy and breast-feeding. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl; 132 Suppl 445:1–28.  
  • Mehta TM, et al. 2017. A review of the safety of clozapine during pregnancy and lactation. Arch Womens Ment Health; 20(1):1-9. 
  • Shao P, et al. 2015. Effects of clozapine and other atypical antipsychotics on infants development who were exposed to as fetus: a post-hoc analysis. PLoS One; 10(4):e0123373. 
  • Thanigaivel R, et al.  2022 A systematic review of maternal and infant outcomes after clozapine continuation in pregnancy. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract; 26(2):178-182. 
  • Tsukiji M, et al. 2025. A Japanese pregnant woman with treatment-resistant schizophrenia who continued clozapine with blood concentration monitoring during the perinatal period and had a healthy baby: a case report. Neuropsychopharmacology Reports; 45(4):e70074.  
  • Uguz F. 2016. Second-generation antipsychotics during the lactation period: a comparative systematic review on infant safety. J Clin Psychopharmacol; 36:244–252.  
  • Uguz F. 2020. The use of clozapine during pregnancy and lactation: a case report. Psychiat Clin Psychopharmacol; 30:193–195. 
  • Uguz F. 2021. A new safety scoring system for the use of psychotropic drugs during lactation. Am J Ther; 28:e118–e126.  
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