This sheet is about exposure to perchloroethylene in pregnancy and while breastfeeding. This information is based on published research studies. It should not take the place of medical care and advice from your healthcare provider. 

What is perchloroethylene? 

Perchloroethylene is a chemical, sometimes referred to as PCE or PERC. Other names include perchlor, and tetrachloroethylene. For this sheet, we will use the PCE abbreviation.  

PCE has been used as a degreaser and dry-cleaning agent. It has also been in paint, spot and paint removers, adhesives, printing inks, household cleaners, and glues.  

How would I be exposed to PCE?  

PCE is a volatile liquid, meaning that it quickly evaporates (turns into a gas and gets into the air) when it is being made and used. It can get into water and soil when there is an accidental spill or a leak. PCE enters our body mostly through the air we breathe. People might also be exposed through skin contact or by drinking contaminated water. 

How can I limit exposure to PCE? 

The use of PCE among industries, such as dry-cleaning, has gone down over the past 35 or so years. Because of this, levels of PCE in air measurements have been dropping. Also, newer dry-cleaning machines and practices have greatly lowered worker exposure to PCE.  

Products with PCE should be used outside whenever possible. If you are using products with PCE inside the house, open doors and windows, and turn on fans to bring in fresh air. Air out items that have been dry cleaned with PCE before bringing them into the house or before you wear them.  

If you work with PCE or other chemicals, make sure that you use all recommended protective gear as outlined by the product’s safety data sheet (SDS). Employers should provide proper safety gear and SDS.  Always follow the directions outlined in the SDS on how to store, use, and clean up the products you use.  

The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) has information on how to reduce workplace exposure to PCE and has set limits on exposure to PCE in the workplace. Small businesses can also contact OSHA’s on-site consultation services to help determine whether there are hazards at their worksite: 1-800-321-OSHA (6742). 

Does the level of exposure (high versus low) to PCE matter? 

Like other chemical exposures, the amount (level) and duration (time) are important in thinking about the chance for health problems. In general, ongoing exposure through a work setting would be expected to give a higher total exposure than an occasional household exposure. Smell is not a good measure of the level of exposure to chemicals. If someone becomes very ill from a chemical exposure, this may signal higher exposure. 

What are the side effects of PCE exposure? 

The effects of PCE depend on how often and how long people are exposed. People exposed to high amounts of PCE might have drowsiness, dizziness and nausea. They may also have headaches, confusion, or itching of the eyes, throat, and nose. If PCE is on the skin, it could cause dryness, redness, and/or blistering. 

Can exposure to PCE make it harder for me to get pregnant?  

It is not known if exposure to PCE alone would make it harder to get pregnant. Studies from the 1970s to the 1990s did not agree if it would take longer to get pregnant after exposure to PCE from working at a dry-cleaning business. Available studies did not measure the women’s actual level of exposure to PCE. 

Can exposure to PCE increase the chance of miscarriage?  

Miscarriage is common and can occur in any pregnancy for many different reasons. Some, but not all, studies from the 1970s to the 1990s suggested that long-term exposure to high levels of PCE at work might increase the chance of miscarriage. Currently, dry-cleaning machines are better at reducing worker exposure to PCE. This means high level exposure would be unlikely in dry-cleaning workplaces that follow proper use and storage of PCE. General exposure to background levels is unlikely to increase the chance of miscarriage. 

Can exposure to PCE increase the chance of birth defects?  

Birth defects can happen in any pregnancy for different reasons. Out of all babies born each year, about 3 out of 100 (3%) will have a birth defect. We look at research studies to try to understand if an exposure, like PCE, might increase the chance of birth defects in a pregnancy. It is unlikely that PCE would increase the chance for birth defects with general background exposure.  

It is not known if exposure to high levels of PCE over time (for example drinking water contaminated with high levels of PCE) is linked to a higher chance of birth defects. Some, but not all studies on exposure to PCE-contaminated water reported a higher chance for birth defects, like cleft lip and/or palate (an opening in the upper lip or the roof of the mouth). However, many of these studies looked at women living near contaminated water but were unable to confirm if those women drank the water or had been exposed.  

Can exposure to PCE in pregnancy increase the chance of other pregnancy-related problems? 

Most studies on PCE exposure during pregnancy did not find an increased chance for babies to have low birth weight (weighing less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces [2500 grams] at birth) or preterm delivery (birth before 37 weeks).  

Can exposure to PCE in pregnancy affect future behavior or learning for the child?   

It is not known if exposure to PCE during pregnancy can affect future behavior or learning for the child.  

PCE and breastfeeding: 

PCE can enter breast milk. PCE has not been well studied during breastfeeding. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report that for most women, the benefits of breastfeeding would outweigh possible concerns with exposure to environmental chemicals in general. Be sure to talk to your healthcare provider about all your breastfeeding questions.  

If a man works around PCE, could it affect his fertility or increase the chance of birth defects? 

Some studies have suggested that PCE might cause changes in sperm that could affect men’s fertility (ability to make healthy sperm) or increase the chance of birth defects. For more general information on paternal exposures, please see the MotherToBaby fact sheet Paternal Exposures at https://mothertobaby.org/fact-sheets/paternal-exposures-pregnancy/.  

Who can I contact for more information?  

If you have specific concerns regarding your work site, discuss them with your healthcare providers or contact MotherToBaby with your specific exposures. You can also look at our MotherToBaby fact sheet on Reproductive Hazards of the Workplace at https://mothertobaby.org/fact-sheets/reproductive-hazards-workplace/ for general tips on working with chemicals. 

In addition, talk with your employer about the option to hire an industrial hygienist (https://www.aiha.org/consultants-directory) or arrange for a Health Hazard Evaluation through the CDC’s National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/default.html) to have your work site evaluated for ways to keep all workers there as safe as possible.  

Please click here for references.  

This sheet is about exposure to levofloxacin in pregnancy and while breastfeeding. This information is based on published research studies. It should not take the place of medical care and advice from your healthcare providers. 

What is levofloxacin? 

Levofloxacin (Levaquin®) is an antibiotic medication used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It is part of a group of antibiotics called quinolones or fluoroquinolones.  

Sometimes when women find out they are pregnant, they think about changing how they take their medication, or stopping their medication altogether. However, it is important to talk with your healthcare providers before making any changes to how you take your medication. Your healthcare providers can talk with you about the benefits of treating your condition and the risks of untreated illness during pregnancy. 

I take levofloxacin. Can it make it harder for me to get pregnant? 

Studies have not been done to see if taking levofloxacin can make it harder to get pregnant.  

Does taking levofloxacin increase the chance of miscarriage? 

Miscarriage is common and can occur in any pregnancy for many different reasons. A study involving 136 first trimester levofloxacin exposed pregnancies found no increased chance for miscarriage.  

Does taking levofloxacin increase the chance of birth defects?  

Birth defects can happen in any pregnancy for different reasons. Out of all babies born each year, about 3 out of 100 (3%) will have a birth defect. We look at research studies to try to understand if an exposure, like levofloxacin, might increase the chance of birth defects in a pregnancy. No increased chance of birth defects was noted in 1 study with 112 pregnancies exposed to levofloxacin in the first trimester.   

Does taking levofloxacin in pregnancy increase the chance of other pregnancy-related problems? 

One study with 136 first trimester levofloxacin exposed pregnancies found no increased chance for pregnancy-related problems, such as preterm delivery (birth before week 37) or low birth weight (weighing less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces [2500 grams] at birth).  

Does taking levofloxacin in pregnancy affect future behavior or learning for the child? 

Studies have not been done to see if levofloxacin can increase the chance of behavior or learning issues for the child.  

Breastfeeding while taking levofloxacin: 

Levofloxacin gets into breast milk in small amounts. Use of levofloxacin as eye drops is not expected to pose any significant risk to a breastfed infant. Levofloxacin has not been typically used in infants because of theoretical (not proven) concerns about adverse effects on cartilage in the infant’s developing joints. Recent data have not been able to prove those theories.  If nursing is avoided for 4 to 6 hours after each dose, the amount of levofloxacin in breastmilk will decrease.  If you suspect the baby has any symptoms (diarrhea, thrush, or diaper rash), contact the child’s healthcare provider.  

Your healthcare providers can talk with you about using levofloxacin while breastfeeding and what treatment is best for you. Be sure to talk to your healthcare provider about all your breastfeeding questions.  

If a man takes levofloxacin, could it affect his fertility or increase the chance of birth defects? 

Studies have not been done to see if levofloxacin could affect male fertility (ability to make healthy sperm) or increase the chance of birth defects. In general, exposures that men have are unlikely to increase risks to a pregnancy. For more information, please see the MotherToBaby fact sheet Paternal Exposures at https://mothertobaby.org/fact-sheets/paternal-exposures-pregnancy/.  

Please click here for references.  

This sheet is about exposure to psilocybin mushrooms (“Magic Mushrooms”) in pregnancy and while breastfeeding. This information is based on published research studies. It should not take the place of medical care and advice from your healthcare provider. 

What are psilocybin mushrooms (“Magic Mushrooms”)?

The term “magic mushrooms” refers to mushrooms that cause an altered state of mind (hallucinations/delusions). Psilocin and psilocybin are the hallucinogenic components found in certain types of mushrooms and are sometimes referred to as psychedelics. Other names for psilocybin mushrooms include caps, shrooms, and buttons. Magic mushrooms are usually eaten fresh or dried but may be brewed in tea or added to food. Psilocybin may also be taken as a pill (capsule).   

I take magic mushrooms. Can it make it harder for me to get pregnant?

It is not known if taking magic mushrooms can make it harder to get pregnant. 

Does taking magic mushrooms increase the chance of miscarriage?  

Miscarriage is common and can occur in any pregnancy for many different reasons. Studies have not been done to see if taking magic mushrooms alone could increase the chance of miscarriage.  

Does taking magic mushrooms increase the chance of birth defects?

Birth defects can happen in any pregnancy for different reasons. Out of all babies born each year, about 3 out of 100 (3%) will have a birth defect. We look at research studies to try to understand if an exposure, like magic mushrooms, might increase the chance of birth defects in a pregnancy. 

Studies have not been done to see if taking magic mushrooms can increase the chance of birth defects in humans. A single animal study showed no increased chance of birth defects. 

Does taking magic mushrooms increase the chance of other pregnancy-related problems?

Studies have not been done to see if taking magic mushrooms can increase the chance of pregnancy-related problems such as preterm delivery (birth before week 37) or low birth weight (weighing less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces [2500 grams] at birth). 

Does taking magic mushrooms in pregnancy affect future behavior or learning for the child?  

Studies have not been done to see if taking magic mushrooms can increase the chance of behavior or learning issues for the child.  

Breastfeeding while taking magic mushrooms:  

Magic mushrooms have not been studied for use during breastfeeding. It is not known if or how magic mushrooms could affect a nursing child. If you are taking magic mushrooms while breastfeeding and you suspect that the baby has any symptoms (such as trouble feeding, sleeping, or breathing) contact the child’s healthcare provider. Be sure to talk to your healthcare provider about all your breastfeeding questions.

If a man takes magic mushrooms, could it affect fertility or increase the chance of birth defects?

Studies have not been done to see if taking magic mushrooms could affect men’s fertility (ability to get a woman pregnant) or increase the chance of birth defects. In general, exposures that fathers or sperm donors have are unlikely to increase risks to a pregnancy. For more information, please see the MotherToBaby fact sheet Paternal Exposures at https://mothertobaby.org/fact-sheets/paternal-exposures-pregnancy/.  

Please click here to view references. 

This sheet is about exposure to MDMA in pregnancy and while breastfeeding. This information should not take the place of medical care and advice from your healthcare provider.

What is MDMA?

3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a drug that can cause an altered state of mind (hallucinations / delusions). Other names for MDMA include Molly, ecstasy, E, X, XTC, and Mandy. MDMA can be taken by mouth as a pill or capsule or snorted / inhaled as a powder.

If you have been using MDMA, please seek help right away. Treatment is available to help you stop using MDMA. Talk with your healthcare providers; they are there to help you.

I am taking MDMA, but I would like to stop taking it before getting pregnant. How long does the drug stay in my body?

People eliminate drugs at different rates. In healthy adults, it takes up to 4 days, on average, for most of the MDMA to be gone from the body.

I take MDMA. Can it make it harder for me to get pregnant?

It is not known if MDMA can make it harder to get pregnant.

Does taking MDMA increase the chance for miscarriage?

Miscarriage is common and can occur in any pregnancy for many different reasons. Studies have not been done to see if MDMA increases the chance for miscarriage.

Does taking MDMA increase the chance of birth defects?

Every pregnancy starts out with a 3-5% chance of having a birth defect. This is called the background risk. Based on the studies reviewed, it is not known if MDMA increases the chance for birth defects above the background risk. One small study reported an increase in heart defects and / or club foot (foot points downward and inward). However, it is not known if the MDMA or other factors caused the increase in birth defects.

Does taking MDMA in pregnancy increase the chance of other pregnancy-related problems?

Based on the studies reviewed, it is not known if MDMA can cause other pregnancy-related problems, such as preterm delivery (birth before week 37) or low birth weight (weighing less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces [2500 grams] at birth).

Does taking MDMA in pregnancy affect future behavior or learning for the child?

Based on the studies reviewed, it is not known if MDMA increases the chance for behavior or learning issues. A study of twenty-eight pregnancies exposed to MDMA reported infants showed a delay in development at four months old. Another study followed a small group of children exposed 1 month before pregnancy and in the first and second trimesters. The study suggested that babies exposed to MDMA might be delayed in their motor development up to 2 years of age. However, the women who were pregnant also reported exposure to alcohol and other drugs. This makes it hard to know if the MDMA, other exposures, or other factors caused these delays.

Breastfeeding while taking MDMA:

Breastfeeding while using MDMA is not recommended. MDMA passes into breast milk. Amphetamine drugs (like MDMA) are found at higher levels in breastmilk than in the blood stream. If MDMA has already been taken, it has been recommended to express and discard breast milk for 48 hours. If you suspect the baby has any symptoms (fever, seizures, rapid heartbeat, eyes rolling, looking upwards for a period of time), contact the child’s healthcare provider. Be sure to talk to your healthcare provider about all of your breastfeeding questions.

If a man takes MDMA, could it affect fertility (ability to get a woman pregnant) or increase the chance of birth defects?

Studies have not been done to see if MDMA could affect a man’s fertility or increase the chance of birth defects above the background risk. In general, exposures that men have are unlikely to increase the risks to a pregnancy. For more information, please see the MotherToBaby fact sheet Paternal Exposures at https://mothertobaby.org/fact-sheets/paternal-exposures-pregnancy/.

Please click here for references.

This sheet is about exposure to miconazole in pregnancy and while breastfeeding. This information is based on published research studies. It should not take the place of medical care and advice from your healthcare provider.  

What is miconazole?  

Miconazole is a medication that has been used to treat fungal infections. As a cream, it has been used topically (on the skin) to treat skin infections and as a cream or suppository (inserted into the vagina) to treat vaginal infections. Some brand names for miconazole are Desenex®, Lomitrin AF®, Monistat®, Micatin® and Mitrazole®.  

Sometimes when women find out they are pregnant, they think about changing how they take their medication, or stopping their medication altogether. However, it is important to talk with your healthcare providers before making any changes to how you take your medication. Your healthcare providers can talk with you about the benefits of treating your condition and the risks of untreated illness during pregnancy. 

What should I do if I think I have a vaginal yeast infection while pregnant?  

Women are more likely to get yeast infections during pregnancy than at other times. If you think you have a vaginal yeast infection, it is important to see your healthcare provider to be sure the infection is yeast before trying to treat it on your own. If you have another type of infection, you may need different treatment.  

I use miconazole. Can it make it harder for me to get pregnant? 

Using miconazole is not expected to make it harder to get pregnant. 

Does using miconazole increase the chance of miscarriage?  

Miscarriage is common and can occur in any pregnancy for many different reasons. One study found a small increased chance for miscarriage with the use of miconazole, but there were several problems with this study that could have affected the results. Other studies have not found that miconazole increases the chance of miscarriage. 

Does taking miconazole increase the chance of birth defects? 

Birth defects can happen in any pregnancy for different reasons. Out of all babies born each year, about 3 out of 100 (3%) will have a birth defect. We look at research studies to try to understand if an exposure, like miconazole, might increase the chance of birth defects in a pregnancy. 

Topical or vaginal medications enter the body in lower amounts than oral (pill) medications. This means less medication reaches the developing fetus. Since topical and vaginal miconazole are not well absorbed, they are unlikely to increase risks to a pregnancy. Most studies have shown that miconazole at low doses (<400 mg/day) does not increase the chance of birth defects. 

Does using miconazole increase the chance of other pregnancy-related problems? 

Studies have not been done to see if miconazole increases the chance for pregnancy-related problems such as preterm delivery (birth before week 37) or low birth weight (weighing less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces [2500 grams] at birth). 

Does using miconazole in pregnancy affect future behavior or learning for the child?   

Studies have not been done to see if miconazole can cause behavior or learning issues for the child. 

Breastfeeding while using miconazole: 

There are no studies looking at the use of miconazole use during breastfeeding. However, because only small amounts of the medication are expected to pass into breastmilk when miconazole is used topically or vaginally, it is not expected to cause side effects in a nursing child. Miconazole cream has been used directly on infants under the care of a healthcare provider to treat fungal infections. If used on the nipples, any excess cream or ointment should be removed from the nipples before nursing. Be sure to talk to your healthcare provider about all your breastfeeding questions.  

If a man uses miconazole, could it affect his fertility or increase the chance of birth defects?  

Studies have not been done to see if miconazole could affect male fertility (ability to get a woman pregnant) or increase the chance of birth defects above the background risk. In general, exposures that fathers or sperm donors have are unlikely to increase risks to a pregnancy. For more information, please see the MotherToBaby fact sheet Paternal Exposures at https://mothertobaby.org/fact-sheets/paternal-exposures-pregnancy/. 

Please click here for references.