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Medications and More during pregnancy and breastfeeding

Nitrofurantoin

Selected References:

  • Ailes EC, et al, & The National Birth Defects Prevention Study. 2016. Association between antibiotic use among pregnant women with urinary tract infections in the first trimester and birth defects, National Birth Defects Prevention Study 1997 to 2011. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol; 106(11):940–949.  
  • Ansaldi Y, et al. 2023. Urinary tract infections in pregnancy. Clin Microbiol Infect; 29(10):1249–1253.  
  • Ben David S, et al. 1995. The safety of nitrofurantoin during the first trimester of pregnancy: meta-analysis. Fundam Clin Pharmacol; 9(5):503–507. 
  • Boissiere-O’Neill T, et al. 2025. Exposure to Systemic Antimicrobials During Pregnancy and Risk of Miscarriage: A Population-Based Registry Study. BJOG: doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.18155. Online ahead of print. 
  • Bookstaver PB, et al. 2015. A Review of Antibiotic Use In Pregnancy. Pharmacotherapy, 35(11):1052-1062. 
  • Bruel H, et al. 2000. Anémie hémolytique chez un nouveau-né après prise maternelle de nitrofurantoïne en fin de grossesse [Hemolytic anemia in a newborn after maternal treatment with nitrofurantoin at the end of pregnancy]. Arc Pediatr; 7(7):745–747.  
  • Chang E, et al. 2005. Urinary Tract Infections are Associated with an Increased Risk of Preeclampsia. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 193(6):S71. 
  • Christensen B. 2000. Which antibiotics are appropriate for treating bacteriuria in pregnancy? J Antimicrob Chemother; 46 Suppl A:29–34. 
  • Crider KS, et al. 2009. Antibacterial medication use during pregnancy and risk of birth defects: National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med; 163(11):978–985.  
  • Czeizel AE, et al. 2001. Nitrofurantoin and congenital abnormalities. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Rep Biol; 95(1):119–126.  
  • Damkier P, et al. 2019. In utero exposure to antibiotics and risk of congenital malformations: a population-based study. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 221(6):648.e1–648.e15. 
  • de Jonge L, et al. 2013. Identifying associations between maternal medication use and birth defects using a case-population approach: an exploratory study on signal detection. Drug Saf; 36(11):1069–1078.  
  • Gardner JS, et al. 1998. Maternal exposure to prescription and non-prescription pharmaceuticals or drugs of abuse and risk of craniosynostosis. Int J Epidemiol; 27(1):64–67. 
  • Gerk PM, et al. 2001. Active transport of nitrofurantoin into human milk. Pharmacotherapy; 21(6):669-675. 
  • Goldberg O, et al. 2013. Exposure to nitrofurantoin during the first trimester of pregnancy and the risk for major malformations. J Clin Pharmacol. 53(9):991–995.  
  • Goldberg O, et al. 2015. Exposure to nitrofurantoin during early pregnancy and congenital malformations: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Obstet Gynaecol Can; 37(2):150–156.  
  • Hailey FJ, et al. 1983. Foetal safety of nitrofurantoin macrocrystals therapy during pregnancy: a retrospective analysis. J Int Med Res; 11(6):364–369.  
  • Hjorth S, et al. 2022. Prenatal exposure to nitrofurantoin and risk of childhood leukaemia: a registry-based cohort study in four Nordic countries. Int J Epidemiol; 51(3):778-788. 
  • Källén BAJ, Olausson P0. 2003. Maternal drug use in early pregnancy and infant cardiovascular defect. Rep Toxicol; 17(3):255–261.  
  • Källén B, Robert-Gnansia E. 2005. Maternal drug use, fertility problems, and infant craniostenosis. Cleft Palate Craniofac J; 42(6):589–593.  
  • Kass EH. 1960. Bacteriuria and pyelonephritis of pregnancy. Arch Intern Med; 105:194-198. 
  • Laspro M, et al. 2025. Association of commonly prescribed antepartum medications and incidence of orofacial clefting. Cleft Palate Craniofac J; 62(7):1164-1174.  
  • Lenke RR, et al. 1983. Pyelonephritis in pregnancy: a prospective randomized trial to prevent recurrent disease evaluating suppressive therapy with nitrofurantoin and close surveillance. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 146(8):953–957.  
  • Lind JN. 2012. Maternal Medication Use and Risk of Hypospadias – An Exposure Spectrum Approach. Georgia State University, Thesis. 
  • Lumbiganon P, et al. & World Health Organization Asymptomatic Bacteriuria Trial Group. 2009. One-day compared with 7-day nitrofurantoin for asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. Obst Gynecol; 113(2 Pt 1):339–345.  
  • Macrobid® Medication label. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/fda/fdaDrugXsl.cfm?setid=8f270a9f-12a1-44d4-bc7e-873613555801&type=display.    
  • McGrady GA, et al. 1985. Maternal urinary tract infection and adverse fetal outcomes. Am J Epidemiol; 121(3):377-381. 
  • Miller JE, et al. 2013. Maternal Use of Antibiotics and the Risk of Childhood Febrile Seizures: A Danish Population-Based Cohort. PloS One; 8(4):e61148. 
  • Nelson WO & Bunge RG. 1957. The effect of therapeutic dosages of nitrofurantoin (furadantin) upon spermatogenesis in man. J Urol; 77(2):275–281. 
  • Osmundson SS, et al. 2025. First-Trimester Antibiotic Use for Urinary Tract Infection and Risk of Congenital Malformations. JAMA Netw Open; 8(7):e2519544.  
  • Patel J, et al. & National Birth Defects Prevention Study. 2023. Fever and antibiotic use in maternal urinary tract infections during pregnancy and risk of congenital heart defects: Findings from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Birth Defects Res; 116(1):e2281  
  • Patel J, et al. 2024. Fever and antibiotic use in maternal urinary tract infections during pregnancy and risk of congenital heart defects: Findings from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Birth Defects Res; 116(1):e2281.  
  • Philpot J, et al. 1995. Congenital symmetrical weakness of the upper limbs resembling brachial plexus palsy: a possible sequel of drug toxicity in first trimester of pregnancy? Neuromuscul Disord; 5(1):67–69.  
  • Puhó EH, et al. 2007. Drug treatment during pregnancy and isolated orofacial clefts in Hungary. Cleft Palate Craniofac J; 44(2):194–202.  
  • The American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ACOG). 2023. Urinary Tract Infections in Pregnant Individuals. Obstet Gynecol; 142(2):435-445. 
  • Zao J, et al. 2014. Using nitrofurantoin while breastfeeding a newborn. Can Fam Physician; 60(6):539–540.  

MotherToBaby cuenta con el apoyo de la Administración de Recursos y Servicios de Salud (HRSA) del Departamento de Salud y Servicios Humanos de los Estados Unidos (HHS) como parte de una adjudicación por un total de $6,000,000 con cero porcentaje financiado con fuentes no gubernamentales. Los contenidos son los del autor/es y no representan necesariamente los puntos de vista oficiales de, ni un respaldo, por HRSA, HHS o el Gobierno de los Estados Unidos.