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Medications and More during pregnancy and breastfeeding

Progesterone and Progestins

Selected References – Progesterone and progestins:

  • Abu-Zaid A, et al. 2025. Cervical pessary versus vaginal progesterone to prevent preterm birth in women with a singleton pregnancy and a short cervix: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Reprod Sci, 32(8):2540-2557.  
  • American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ Committee on Practice Bulletins-Obstetrics. 2021. Prediction and prevention of spontaneous preterm birth: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 234. Obstet Gynecol, 138(2):e65-e90. 
  • Bidabadi E, et al. 2026. The association between maternal progesterone use during pregnancy and offspring attention deficit hyperactivity disorder risk. J Atten Disord, 30(3):292-299.  
  • Carmichael SL, et.al. 2005. Maternal progestin intake and risk of hypospadias. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 159(10):957-962. 
  • Check JH, et al. 1986. The risk of fetal anomalies as a result of progesterone therapy during pregnancy. Fertil Steril, 45:575-577. 
  • Committee on Drugs. 2001. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics, 108(3):776-789. 
  • Danielsson BR, Ritchie HE. 2025. Review: hormone pregnancy tests were teratogenic by the same failed abortion and hypoxia-related mechanism as misoprostol. Birth Defects Res, 117(3):e2462.  
  • Devall AJ, et al. 2021. Progestogens for preventing miscarriage: a network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Sys Rev, 4(4):CD013792. 
  • Dominsky O, et al. 2026. Vaginal progesterone and the risk of preterm birth in patients with short cervix beyond 24 weeks. Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 172(2):1039-1046.  
  • Duds I, et al. 2006. Population-based case-control teratogenic study of hydroxyprogesterone treatment during pregnancy. Congenit Anom (Kyoto), 46:194-198. 
  • Elenis E, et al. 2025. Perinatal outcomes of progesterone in natural frozen-thawed embryo transfer pregnancies: insights from 2 randomized controlled trials. Fertil Steril, 124(1):104-112.  
  • Eshraghi N, et al. 2025. Combined vaginal progesterone and cervical pessary effect on preterm birth in singleton pregnancies with short cervix: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 25(1):1055.  
  • Fawzy M, et al. 2008. Treatment options and pregnancy outcome in women with idiopathic recurrent miscarriage: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Arch Gynecol Obstet, 278(1):33-38.  
  • Fernandes Dias M, et al. 2026. Progesterone in pregnancy and neonatal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 172(2):685-696.  
  • He YTN, et al. 2025. Cervical cerclage versus cervical pessary with or without vaginal progesterone for preterm birth prevention in twin pregnancies and a short cervix: a two-by-two factorial randomised clinical trial. PLoS Med, 22(2):e1004526. 
  • Heinonen OP, et al. 1977. Birth Defects and Drugs in Pregnancy. Littleton, Mass.: John Wright-PSG, pp 389, 391-392, 394, 443, 478, 497. 
  • Heinonen OP, et al. 1977. Cardiovascular birth defects and antenatal exposure to female sex hormones. N Engl J Med, 296:67-60. 
  • Kanbak AR, Öztekin DC. 2025. Is the use of vaginal progesterone a factor in pregnant women diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus? Rev Assoc Med Bras (1992), 71(8):e20250444.  
  • Lokshin VN, et al. 2024. Progestin-primed ovarian stimulation outcomes in in-vitro fertilization (IVF) – a systematic review of the literature. Gynecol Endocrinol, 40(1):2414783.  
  • Massai R, et al. 2005. Extended use of a progesterone-releasing vaginal ring in nursing women: a phase II clinical trial. Contraception, 72:352-357. 
  • Mei Y, et al. 2025. Impact of the PPOS protocol on euploidy embryo rates and reproductive outcomes in preimplantation genetic testing cycles: a systematic review. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 16:1595232.  
  • Michaelis J, et al. 1983. Prospective study of suspected associations between certain drugs administered during early pregnancy and congenital malformations. Teratology, 27:57-64. 
  • Nachum Z, et al. 2024. Vaginal progesterone for pregnancy prolongation after arrested preterm labor: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open, 7(7):e2419894. 
  • Nguyen HTL, et al. 2025. Intensive luteal phase support in hormone replacement and modified natural cycle frozen embryo transfers in ovulatory patients: a propensity score-matched study. PLoS One, 20(7):e0327470.
  • Norman JE, et al. 2009. Progesterone for the prevention of preterm birth in twin pregnancy (STOPPIT): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study and meta-analysis. Lancet, 373(9680):2034-2040. 
  • Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. 2008. Progesterone supplementation during the luteal phase and in early pregnancy in the treatment of infertility: an educational bulletin. Fertility and Sterility, 89(4):789-792. 
  • Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. 2012. Evaluation and treatment of recurrent pregnancy loss: a committee opinion. Fertility and Sterility, 98(5):1103-1111. 
  • RamaRao S, et al. 2013. Progesterone vaginal ring: introducing a contraceptive to meet the needs of breastfeeding women. Contraception, 88(5):591-598. 
  • Rinaldi L, et al. 2024. Oral dydrogesterone along with vaginal micronized progesterone supplementation for luteal phase support in IVF patients, and its impact on pregnancy and live birth rates: a prospective randomized trial. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 24(1):845.  
  • Roy M, et al. 2020. Progesterone vaginal ring as a new contraceptive option for lactating mothers: evidence from a multicenter non-randomized comparative clinical trial in India. Contraception, 102(3):159-167. 
  • Silver RI, et al. 1999. In vitro fertilization is associated with an increased risk of hypospadias. J Urology, 161(6):1954-1957. 
  • Ti A, et al. 2025. Progestogen-only contraception use during breastfeeding: an updated systematic review. BMJ Sex Reprod Health, 51(Suppl 1):s4-s17.  
  • Wang X, et al. 2024. The effectiveness of vaginal progesterone to prevent preterm birth in singleton pregnant women with a short cervix at 18-32 weeks gestation. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med, 37(1):2412751.  
  • Wu HM, et al. 2025. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum aggregates in oocytes: a comparison of progestin-primed and GnRH antagonist IVF protocols. J Ovarian Res, 18(1):181.  
  • Wu JN, et al. 2025. Association of combined folic acid and progesterone use with congenital malformations in women with vaginal bleeding during early pregnancy: a multicenter cohort study. Eur J Med Res, 30(1):1057.  
  • Xie YX, et al. 2025. Comparison of oral dydrogesterone and vaginal progesterone for luteal phase support in natural and modified natural cycle frozen embryo transfers. J Ovarian Res, 18(1):183.  
  • Yu L, et al. 2024. Evaluation of two luteal support regimens, intramuscular progesterone and progesterone vaginal gel, for vitrified-warmed embryo transfer in women with chronic salpingitis: a single-center 8-year retrospective study. Eur J Med Res, 29(1):619. 
  • Zhang W, et al. 2025. No improvement in pregnancy and perinatal outcomes with combined luteal support in modified natural cycle frozen embryo transfer. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 15:1458527.  
  • Zhao H, et al. 2025. Efficacy and safety of different progestogens in women with first threatened miscarriage: a network meta-analysis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 168(3):944-957.  
  • Zhao J, et al. 2025. Cesarean delivery modifies the association between prenatal exogenous progesterone and cryptorchidism: a case-control study. Eur J Pediatr, 184(12):746.  

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