Toxoplasmosis

Selected References:

• Alvarado-Esquivel C, et al. 2015. High seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in female sex workers: A case-control study. Eur J Microbiol (Bp); 5(4);285-292. 
• Abdoloe A, et al. 2012. Impaired reproductive function of male rats infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Andrologia; 44 Suppl 1:679-687. 
• Arce-Estrada GE, et al. 2017. Report of an unusual case of anophthalmia and craniofacial cleft in a newborn with Toxoplasma gondii congenital infection. BMC Infect Dis; 17(1):459. 
• Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs (ASPA). 2022. Cook to a safe minimum internal temperature. FoodSafety.gov. https://www.foodsafety.gov/food-safety-charts/safe-minimum-internal-temperatures.  
• Bonetti A, et al. 2025. Risk of Congenital Toxoplasmosis in Newborns from Mothers with Documented Infection: Experience from Two Referral Centres. Pathogens; 14(2):157.   
• Buonsenso D, et al. 2022. Spyramicine and Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole Combination to Prevent Mother-To-Fetus Transmission of Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Pregnant Women: A 28-Years Single-center Experience. Pediatr Infect Dis J; 41(5).  
• Cerisola A, et al. 2025. Congenital toxoplasmosis. Semin Pediatr Neurol; 54:101203.  
• Codaccioni C, et al. 202. Ultrasound features of fetal toxoplasmosis: A contemporary multicenter survey in 88 fetuses. Prenat Diagn; 40(13):1741-1752.  
• Cook AJC, et al. 2000. Sources of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women. BMJ; 321:142-147.  
• Conceição AR, et al. 2021. Ocular Findings in Infants with Congenital Toxoplasmosis after a Toxoplasmosis Outbreak. Ophthalmology; 128(9):1346-1355. 
• Cortina-Borja M, et al, & European Multicentre Study on Congenital Toxoplasmosis (EMSCOT). 2010. Prenatal treatment for serious neurological sequelae of congenital toxoplasmosis: an observational prospective cohort study. PLoS Med; 7(10):e1000351.  
• Couvreur J, et al. 1993. In utero treatment of toxoplasmic fetopathy with the combination pyrimethamine-sulfadiazine. Fetal Diagn Ther; 8:45-50.  
• Dadoun S, et al. 2024. Congenital toxoplasmosis of the brain caused by infection in late pregnancy. Lancet; 403(10431):1081-1082.  
• Daffos F, et al. 1988. Prenatal management of 746 pregnancies at risk for congenital toxoplasmosis. N Engl J Med; 318(5):271-275.  
• Damar Çakırca T, et al. 2023. Toxoplasmosis: A Timeless Challenge for Pregnancy. Trop Med Infect Dis; 8(1):63. 
• Dard C, et al. 2017. Late diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis based on serological follow-up: A case report. Parasitol Int; 66(2):186-189. 
• D’Ercole C, et al. 1995. Recurrent congenital toxoplasmosis in a woman with lupus erythematosus. Prenat Diagn; 15(12):1171-1175. 
• Desmonts G, Couvreur J. 1974. Congenital toxoplasmosis. A prospective study of 378 pregnancies. N Engl J Med; 290(20):1110-6.  
• Dhombres F, et al. 2017. Prognosis of fetal parenchymal cerebral lesions without ventriculomegaly in congenital toxoplasmosis infection. Fetal Diagn Ther; 41(1):8-14.  
• Dubey JP and Jones JL. 2008. Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans and animals in the United States. Int J Parasitol; 38:1257-1278.  
• Ducrot SB, et al. 2018. Neonatal fever: A puzzling case. Arch Pediatr; 25(7):435-438.  
• Dunn D, et al. 1999. Mother-to-child transmission of toxoplasmosis: risk estimates for clinical counseling. Lancet; 353:1829-1833.  
• El-Beshbishi SN, et al. 2025. The Impact of Chronic Toxoplasmosis on the Gonadotropic Gonadal Axis in Male Rats. Acta Parasitol; 71(1):3. 
• Elbez-Rubinstein A, et al. Congenital toxoplasmosis and reinfection during pregnancy: case report, strain characterization, experimental model of reinfection, and review. J Infect Dis; 199(2):280-5.  
• Fallahi S, et al. 2018. An updated literature review on maternal-fetal and reproductive disorders of Toxoplasma gondii infection. Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod; 47(3):133-140. 
• Feldman DM, et al. 2016. Toxoplasmosis, parvovirus, and cytomegalovirus in pregnancy. Clin Lab Med; 36(2):407-419. 
• Ferreira L, et al. 2024. Congenital toxoplasmosis and auditory disorders: a literature review. Front Psychol; 14:1286211.  
• Flegr J, et al. 2014. Toxoplasmosis can be a sexually transmitted infection with serious clinical consequences. Not all routes of infection are created equal. Med Hypotheses; 83(3):286-289.   
• Foulton W, et al. 1999. Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis: a multicenter evaluation of different diagnostic parameters. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 181(4):843-847. 
• Foulton W, et al. 1999. Treatment of toxoplasmosis during pregnancy: a multicenter study of impact on fetal transmission and children’s sequelae at age 1 year. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 180(2):410-415. 
• Gilbert RE, Stanford MR. 2000. Is ocular toxoplasmosis caused by prenatal or postnatal infection. Br J Ophthalmol; 84(2):224-226. 
• Giugno S, et al. 2020. Congenital toxoplasmotic chorioretinitis following reinfection. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol; 251:263-265. 
• Groer MW, et al. 2011. Prenatal depression and anxiety in Toxoplasma gondi positive women. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 204(5):433.e1-7.  
• Guerina NG, et al. 1994. Neonatal serologic screening and early treatment for congenital Toxoplasma gondii infection. The New England Regional Toxoplasma Working Group. N Engl J Med; 330(26):1858-63.  
• Gundeslioglu OO, et al. 2024. Congenital Toxoplasmosis and Long-term Outcomes. Turkiye Parazitol Derg; 48(1):8-14. 
• Gunturiz ML, et al. 2018. Congenital cerebral toxoplasmosis, Zika, and chikungunya virus infections: a case report. Biomedica; 38(2):144-152.  
• Hampton MM. 2015. Congenital toxoplasmosis: A review. Neonatal Netw; 34(5):274-278.  
• Hide G, et al. 2009. Evidence for high levels of vertical transmission in Toxoplasma gondii. Parasitol; 136:1877-1885.  
• Hlaváčová J, et al. 2021. Male-to-female presumed transmission of toxoplasmosis between sexual partners. Am J Epidemiol; 190(3):386-392. 
• Hlaváčová, Jet al. 2021, Association between latent toxoplasmosis and fertility parameters of men. Andrology; 9: 854-862. 
• Hohlfeld P, et al. 1991. Fetal toxoplasmosis: ultrasonographic signs. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol; 1(4):241-4.  
• Hohlfeld P, et al. 1994. Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis with a polymerase-chain-reaction test on amniotic fluid. N Engl J Med; 331(11):695-699.  
• Hosseini SA, et al. 2025. Latent toxoplasmosis and preeclampsia: evidence for the role of chronic infection in pregnancy complications. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth; 25(1):1130. 
• Hunter K, et al. 1983. Prenatal screening of pregnant women for infections caused by cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, herpesvirus, rubella, and Toxoplasma gondii. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 145:269-273. 
• Hurt K, et al. 2022. Toxoplasmosis impact on prematurity and low birth weight. PLoS One; 17(1). 
• Jones, CA. 2001. Maternal transmission of infectious pathogens in breast milk. J Paediatr Child Health; 37:576-582.  
• Jones JL et al. 2001. Toxoplasmosis gondii infection in the United States: Seroprevalence and Risk Factors. Am J Epidemiol; 4:357-365.  
• Kahn K, Kahn W. 2018. Congenital toxoplasmosis: An overview of the neurological and ocular manifestations. Parasitol Int; (67(6):715-721.  
• Kalantari N, et al. 2021. Toxoplasma gondii infection and spontaneous abortion: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Microb Pathog; 158:105070.  
• Kaňková Š, et al. 2015. The influence of latent toxoplasmosis on women’s reproductive functions: four cross-sectional studies. Folia Parasitol (Praha); 62:2015.041. 
• Kaňková Š, et al. 2020. Oral sex: A new, and possibly the most dangerous, route of toxoplasmosis transmission. Med Hypotheses; 141:109725.  
• Kazemi F, et al. 2023. Toxoplasma and Risk of Spontaneous Abortion: A Meta-Analysis in A Population of Iranian Women. Int J Fertil Steril; 17(1):7-11. 
• Khamsian EM, et al. 2021. Toxoplasma gondii in milk of human and goat from the desert area in Central Iran. Iran J Parasitol; 16(4): 601-609.  
• Koppe JG, et al. 1986. Results of 20-year follow-up of congenital toxoplasmosis. Lancet; 1:254-255.  
• Li XL, et al. 2014. A meta analysis on risks of adverse pregnancy outcomes in Toxoplasma gondii infection. PLoS One; 9(5):e97775.  
• Lopez A, et al. 2000. Preventing congenital toxoplasmosis. MMWR Recomm Rep; 49(RR-2):59-68.  
• Lynfield R and Eaton RB. 1995. Teratogen update: Congenital toxoplasmosis. Teratology; 52(3):176-180.  
• Maldonado YA, Read JS; Committee on Infections Diseases. 2017. Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention of Congenital Toxoplasmosis in the United States. Pediatrics; 139(2):e20163860.  
• Malinger G, et al, 2011. Herrera M. Prenatal brain imaging in congenital toxoplasmosis. Prenat Diagn; 31(9):881-6. 
• Marsolkova K, et al. 2018. Congenital central toxoplasmosis chorioretinitis – case study. Cesk Slov Oftalmol; 74(3):114-118.  
• Martinez VO, et al. 2023. Impact of chronic toxoplasmosis in pregnancy: association between maternal seropositivity for Toxoplasma gondii IgG antibodies and fetal growth restriction. Parasitol Res; 123(1):25.  
• Matini M, et al. 2026. Toxoplasmosis: sperm parameters and testosterone levels in men. J Parasit Dis; 50(1):244-249. 
• Matsui D. 1994. Prevention, diagnosis and treatment of fetal toxoplasmosis. Clin Perinatol; 21(3):675-689.  
• Merz E. 2004. Ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology. Vol. 1: obstetrics. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Thieme. 
• McLeod R, et al. 2014. Management of congenital toxoplasmosis. Curr Pediatr Rep; 2:166-194. 
• Montoya JG, Liesenfeld O. 2004 Toxoplasmosis. Lancet. 363(9425):1965–1976.  
• Montoya JC & Remington JS. 2008. Management of Toxoplasma gondii infection during pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis; 47(4):554-566.  
• National Center for Infectious Diseases and the CDC. 2000. Preventing Congenital Toxoplasmosis. MMWR. 49(RR02);57-75.  
• Njoh AA, et al. 2016. Fetal malformation in maternal toxoplasma and rubella co-infection in Cameroon: A case report. J Med Case Rep; 10(1):345. 
• Nourollahpour Shiadeh M, et al. 2020. The prevalence of latent and acute toxoplasmosis in HIV-infected pregnant women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Microb Pathog; 149:104549.  
• Orevaoghene OE, et al. 2025. Evaluation of Maternal and Neonatal Risk Factors in the Transmission of Toxoplasmosis: A Study on the Detection of Toxoplasma gondii Antibodies in Cord Blood. Ethiop J Health Sci. 2025 Jul;35(4):267-273.  
• Oz HS. 2017. Fetomaternal and pediatric toxoplasmosis. J Pediatr Infect Dis; 12(4): 202-208. 
• Paquet C, Yudin MH; Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada. 2013. Toxoplasmosis in pregnancy: prevention, screening, and treatment. J Obstet Gynaecol Can; 35(1):78-81. 
• Paquet C, Yudin MH. 2018. No. 285-Toxoplasmosis in pregnancy: Prevention, screening, and treatment. J Obstet Gynaecol Can; 40(8):e687-e693. 
• Picone O, et al. 2020. Toxoplasmosis screening during pregnancy in France: Opinion of an expert panel for the CNGOF. J Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod; 49(7):101814. 
• Prusa A-R, et al. 2015. The Austrian toxoplasmosis register, 1992-2008. Clin Infect Dis; 60(2): e4-e10. 
• Rajapakse S, et al. 2017. Prophylaxis of human toxoplasmosis: a systematic review. Pathog Glob Health; 111(7):333-342.  
• Red Book: 2024–2027. Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases (33rd Edition). Toxoplasma gondii Infections (Toxoplasmosis). Red book (Elk Grove Village, Ill.), p.867. 
• Rehman F, et al. 2020. Unpasteurized milk consumption as a potential risk factor for toxoplasmosis in females with recurrent pregnancy loss. J Obstet Gynaecol; 4:1-5. 
• Rico-Torres CP, et al. 2016. Is Toxoplasma gondii type related to clinical outcome in human congenital infection? Systematic and critical review. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis; 35(7):1079-1088.  
• Robert-Gangneux F, Darde M-L. 2012. Epidemiology of and diagnostic strategies for toxoplasmosis. Clin Microbiol Rev; 25(2) :264-296.  
• Rojas-Barón L, et al. 2025. Adverse impact of acute Toxoplasma gondii infection on human spermatozoa. FEBS J; 292(17):4720-4736. 
• Sanders AP, et al. 2017. Ocular lesions in congenital toxoplasmosis in Santa Isabel do Ivaí, Paranà, Brazil. Pediatr Infect Dis J; 36(9):817-820.  
• Shojaee S, et al. 2018. The relation of secondary sex ratio and miscarriage history with Toxoplasma gondii infection. BMC Infect Dis; 18(1):307.  
• Simon L, et al. 2020. A case of toxoplasmosis-associated miscarriage with maternal infections four months prior to conception. Parasitol Int; 79:102165.   
• Smit GSA, et al. 2017. Public health impact of congenital toxoplasmosis and cytomegalovirus infection in Belgium, 2013: a systematic review and data synthesis. Clin Infect Dis; 65(4):661-668.  
• Spann MN, et al. 2017. Prenatal toxoplasmosis antibody and childhood autism. Autism Res; 10(5):769-777.  
• Stray-Pedersen B. 1993. Toxoplasmosis in pregnancy. Baillieres Clin Ob Gynecol; 7(1):107-137. 
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• Torrey EF, et al. 2012. Toxoplasmosis gondii and other risk factors for schizophrenia: an update. Schizophr Bull; 38(3):642-647.  
• The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2015, reaffirmed 2024. Practice bulletin # 151: Cytomegalovirus, Parvovirus B19, Varicella Zoster, and Toxoplasmosis in Pregnancy. Ob Gyn 125(6): 1510-1525. 
• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC):About Toxoplasmosis. 2025. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html. [Accessed 3/31/26]. Clinical Overview of Toxoplasmosis. 2024. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html. [Accessed 3/31/26]. 
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• Wallon M, et al. 2014. Ophthalmic outcomes of congenital toxoplasmosis followed until adolescence. Pediatrics; 133(3):e601-8.  
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• Zhang F, et al. 2024. Toxoplasma gondii Causes Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes by Damaging Uterine Tissue-Resident NK Cells That Secrete Growth-Promoting Factors. J Infect Dis; 229(2):547-557.  
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