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Marijuana (Cannabis)

Selected References

  • American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2017. (Reaffirmed in 2021). Marijuana Use During Pregnancy and Lactation. ACOG Committee Opinion Number. 722. Obstetrics & Gynecology; 130(4).
  • Astley SJ, Little RE. 1990. Maternal marijuana use during lactation and infant development at one year. Neurotoxicol Teratol.;12:161–8.
  • Bertrand KA, et al. 2018. Marijuana use by breastfeeding mothers and cannabinoid concentrations in breast milk. Pediatrics; 142:e20181076.
  • Carroll K, et al. 2020. Marijuana use and its influence on sperm morphology and motility: identified risk for fertility among Jamaican men. Andrology.;8(1):136-142.
  • Chabarria KC, et al. 2016. Marijuana use and its effects in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 215(4):506.e1-7.
  • Cioffredi LA, et al. 2022. Prenatal cannabis exposure predicts attention problems, without changes on fMRI in adolescents. Neurotoxicology and teratology, 91, 107089.
  • Coleman-Cowger V, et al. 2018. Prevalence and associated birth outcomes of co-use of cannabis and tobacco cigarettes during pregnancy. Neurotoxicity and Teratology 68: 84-90
  • Committee on Drugs, American Academy of Pediatrics. 2001. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human breast milk. Pediatrics 108:776-89.
  • Corsi DJ, et. al. 2020. Maternal Cannabis use in Pregnancy and Child Neurodevelopmental Outcomes. Nat Med; 26, 1536-1540.
  • Davis, E, et al. 2020. Cannabis use in pregnancy and breastfeeding: The pharmacist’s role. Can Pharm J; 153(2):95-100.Delker E, Hayes S, Kelly AE, Jones KL, Chambers C, Bandoli G. 2022. Prenatal exposure to cannabis and risk of major structural birth defects: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ob Gyn 142(2): 269-283
  • Delker E, Baer RJ, Kelly AE, Chambers C, Bandoli G. Prenatal cannabis use disorder and gastroschisis in California, 2007-19. Int J Epidemiol. 2024;53(2):dyae042. doi:10.1093/ije/dyae042
  • ElSohly MA, et al. 2016. Changes in Cannabis Potency Over the Last 2 Decades (1995-2014): Analysis of Current Data in the United States. Biol Psychiatry. 79(7):613-9.
  • Feinshtein V, et al. 2013. Cannabidiol changes P-gp and BCRP expression in trophoblast cell lines. PeerJ; 1:e153.
  • Fried PA, Smith AM. 2001. A lit review of the consequences of prenatal marihuana exposure. An emerging theme of a deficiency in aspects of executive function. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 23:1-11.
  • Fronczak CM, et al. 2012. The insults of illicit drug use on male fertility. J Androl, 33(4): 515-528.
  • Goldschmidt L, et al. 2004. Prenatal marijuana and alcohol exposure and academic achievement at age 10. Neurotoxicol Teratol 26(4):521-32. Goldschmidt L, et al. 2008. Prenatal marijuana and intelligence test performance at age 6. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47(3):254-263.
  • Goldschmidt L, et al. 2016. Early marijuana initiation: Link between prenatal marijuana exposure, early childhood behavior, and negative adult roles. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 58:40-45.
  • Gray T, et al. 2010. Identifying prenatal cannabis exposure and effects of concurrent tobacco exposure on neonatal growth. Clin Chem 56(9):1442-1450.
  • Gundersen TD, et al. 2015. Association Between Use of Marijuana and Male Reproductive Hormones and Semen Quality: A Study Among 1,215 Healthy Young Men. Am J Epidemiol.;182(6):473-481.
  • Hale D, Phillips W. 2022. Cannabis Withdrawal in Two Newborns. Abstract published at SHM Converge 2022. Abstract G24 Journal of Hospital Medicine. https://shmabstracts.org/abstract/cannabis-withdrawal-in-two-newborns/.
  • Hayatbakhsh MR, et al. 2012. Birth outcomes associated with cannabis use before and during pregnancy. Pediatric Res 71(2): 215-219.
  • Hehemann MC, et al. 2021. Evaluation of the impact of marijuana use on semen quality: a prospective analysis. Therapeutic Advances in Urology; 13:17562872211032484.
  • Huizink A. 2009. Moderate use of alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis during pregnancy: New approaches and update on research findings. Reprod Toxicol 28:143-151.
  • Jones MJ, et al. 2022. Prenatal marijuana exposure and neonatal outcomes: a retrospective cohort study. BMJ open, 12(9), e061167.
  • Lam PK and Torfs CP. 2006. Interaction between maternal smoking and malnutrition in infant risk of gastroschisis. Birth Defects Res 76:182-186.
  • Leech SL, et al. 1999. Prenatal substance exposure: effects on attention and impulsivity of 6-year-olds. Neurotoxicol Teratol 21(2):109-18.
  • Leemaqz SY, et al, SCOPE Consortium. 2016. Maternal marijuana use has independent effects on risk for spontaneous preterm birth but not other common later pregnancy complications. Reprod Toxicol; 62:77-86.
  • Liston J. 1998. Breastfeeding and the use of recreational drugs alcohol, caffeine, nicotine and marijuana. Breastfeed Rev 6(2):27-30.
  • Matrin GI. 2020. Marijuana: The Effects on Pregnancy, the Fetus, and the Newborn. J Perinatology; 40, 1470-1476.
  • Metz TD, et al. 2017. Maternal marijuana use, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and neonatal morbidity. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 217:478.e1-8.
  • Moss MJ, et al. 2021. Cannabis use and measurement of cannabinoids in plasma and breast milk of breastfeeding mothers. Pediatric research, 90(4), 861–868.
  • Neradugomma NK, et al. 2019. Marijuana-derived cannabinoids inhibit uterine endometrial stromal cell decidualization and compromise trophoblast-endometrium cross-talk. Reprod Toxicol; 87:100-107.
  • Nguyen VH, Harley KG. 2022. Prenatal Cannabis Use and Infant Birth Outcomes in the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System. The Journal of pediatrics, 240, 87–93.
  • Reece-Stremtan S, et al; Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine. 2015. ABM Clinical Protocol #21: Guidelines for breastfeeding and substance use or substance use disorders, revised. Breastfeed Med; 10:135-141.
  • Roca A, et al. 2021. Clinical features and risk factors associated with prenatal exposure to drugs of abuse. Anales de pediatria, 95(5), 307–320.
  • Ryan SA, Ammerman SD, O’Connor ME; COMMITTEE ON SUBSTANCE USE AND PREVENTION; SECTION ON BREASTFEEDING. Marijuana Use During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding: Implications for Neonatal and Childhood Outcomes [published correction appears in Pediatrics. 2018 Aug 27;:]. Pediatrics. 2018;142(3):e20181889. doi:10.1542/peds.2018-1889
  • Sarrafpour S, et. al. 2020. Considerations and Implications of Cannabidiol Use During Pregnancy. Curr Pain Headache Rep; 24, 38.
  • Sasso EB, et al. 2021. Marijuana use and perinatal outcomes in obstetric patients at a safety net hospital. European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology, 266, 36–41.
  • Smith AM, et al. 2004. Effects of prenatal marijuana on response inhibition: an MRI study of young adults Neurotoxicol Teratol 26(4):533-42.
  • Thompson R, et al. 2019. Marijuana Use in Pregnancy: A Review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2019 Jul;74(7):415-428.
  • S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2022. What You Should Know About Using Cannabis, Including CBD, When Pregnant or Breastfeeding: Available at: https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-should-know-about-using-cannabis-including-cbd-when-pregnant-or-breastfeeding [Accessed 10/2022].
  • Varner MW, et al. 2014. Association between stillbirth and illicit drug use and smoking during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol; 123(1):113-25.
  • Weinsheimer RL, et al. 2008. Impact of maternal substance abuse and smoking on children with gastroschisis. J Pediatr Surg 43:879-883.
  • Williams LJ, et al. 2004. Maternal lifestyle factors and risk for ventricular septal defects. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 70:59-64.

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