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Medications and More during pregnancy and breastfeeding

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Marijuana (Cannabis)

Selected References

  • American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2018. Committee Opinion No. 753: Assessment and Treatment of Pregnant Women with Suspected or Confirmed Influenza. Obstet Gyn 132(4):e169-e173.
  • Aoki FY, et al. 2013. The use of antiviral drugs for influenza: A foundation document for practitioners. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 24(Suppl C) :1-15.
  • Bertrand KA, et al. 2018. Marijuana use by breastfeeding mothers and cannabinoid concentrations in breast milk. Pediatrics; 142:e20181076.
  • Chabarria KC, et al. 2016. Marijuana use and its effects in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 215(4):506.e1-7.
  • Coleman-Cowger V, et al. 2018. Prevalence and associated birth outcomes of co-use of cannabis and tobacco cigarettes during pregnancy. Neurotoxicity and Teratology 68: 84-90
  • Committee on Drugs, American Academy of Pediatrics. 2001. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human breast milk. Pediatrics 108:776-89.
  • Cook PS, et al. 1991. Alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs may harm the unborn. Govt Reports Announcements & Index (GRA&I), issue 15.
  • Corsi DJ, et. al. 2020. Maternal Cannabis use in Pregnancy and Child Neurodevelopmental Outcomes. Nat Med; 26, 1536-1540.
  • Davis, E, et al. 2020. Cannabis use in pregnancy and breastfeeding: The pharmacist’s role. Can Pharm J; 153(2):95-100.
  • ElSohly MA, et al. 2016. Changes in Cannabis Potency Over the Last 2 Decades (1995-2014): Analysis of Current Data in the United States. Biol Psychiatry. 79(7):613-9.
  • Feinshtein V, et al. 2013. Cannabidiol changes P-gp and BCRP expression in trophoblast cell lines. PeerJ; 1:e153.
  • Fried PA, Smith AM. 2001. A lit review of the consequences of prenatal marihuana exposure. An emerging theme of a deficiency in aspects of executive function. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 23:1-11.
  • Fronczak CM, et al. 2012. The insults of illicit drug use on male fertility. J Androl, 33(4): 515-528.
  • Goldschmidt L, et al. 2004. Prenatal marijuana and alcohol exposure and academic achievement at age 10. Neurotoxicol Teratol 26(4):521-32. Goldschmidt L, et al. 2008. Prenatal marijuana and intelligence test performance at age 6. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47(3):254-263.
  • Goldschmidt L, et al. 2016. Early marijuana initiation: Link between prenatal marijuana exposure, early childhood behavior, and negative adult roles. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 58:40-45.
  • Gray T, et al. 2010. Identifying prenatal cannabis exposure and effects of concurrent tobacco exposure on neonatal growth. Clin Chem 56(9):1442-1450.
  • Hayatbakhsh MR, et al. 2012. Birth outcomes associated with cannabis use before and during pregnancy. Pediatric Res 71(2): 215-219.
  • Huizink A. 2009. Moderate use of alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis during pregnancy: New approaches and update on research findings. Reprod Toxicol 28:143-151.
  • Lam PK and Torfs CP. 2006. Interaction between maternal smoking and malnutrition in infant risk of gastroschisis. Birth Defects Res 76:182-186.
  • Leech SL, et al. 1999. Prenatal substance exposure: effects on attention and impulsivity of 6-year-olds. Neurotoxicol Teratol 21(2):109-18.
  • Leemaqz SY, et al, SCOPE Consortium. 2016. Maternal marijuana use has independent effects on risk for spontaneous preterm birth but not other common later pregnancy complications. Reprod Toxicol; 62:77-86.
  • Liston J. 1998. Breastfeeding and the use of recreational drugs alcohol, caffeine, nicotine and marijuana. Breastfeed Rev 6(2):27-30.
  • Matrin GI. 2020. Marijuana: The Effects on Pregnancy, the Fetus, and the Newborn. J Perinatology; 40, 1470-1476.
  • Metz TD, et al. 2017. Maternal marijuana use, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and neonatal morbidity. Am J Obstet Gynecol; 217:478.e1-8.
  • Neradugomma NK, et al. 2019. Marijuana-derived cannabinoids inhibit uterine endometrial stromal cell decidualization and compromise trophoblast-endometrium cross-talk. Reprod Toxicol; 87:100-107.
  • Reece-Stremtan S, et al; Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine. 2015. ABM Clinical Protocol #21: Guidelines for breastfeeding and substance use or substance use disorders, revised. Breastfeed Med; 10:135-141.
  • Sarrafpour S, et. al. 2020. Considerations and Implications of Cannabidiol Use During Pregnancy. Curr Pain Headache Rep; 24, 38.
  • Smith AM, et al. 2004. Effects of prenatal marijuana on response inhibition: an MRI study of young adults Neurotoxicol Teratol 26(4):533-42.
  • The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2017. Marijuana Use During Pregnancy and Lactation. ACOG Committee Opinion Number. 722. Obstetrics & Gynecology; 130(4).
  • Thompson R, et al. 2019. Marijuana Use in Pregnancy: A Review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2019 Jul;74(7):415-428.
  • S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2019. What You Should Know About Using Cannabis, Including CBD, When Pregnant or Breastfeeding: Available at: https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-should-know-about-using-cannabis-including-cbd-when-pregnant-or-breastfeeding [Accessed 10/2019].
  • Varner MW, et al. 2014. Association between stillbirth and illicit drug use and smoking during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol; 123(1):113-25.
  • Weinsheimer RL, et al. 2008. Impact of maternal substance abuse and smoking on children with gastroschisis. J Pediatr Surg 43:879-883.
  • Williams L, et al. 2004. Maternal lifestyle factors and risk for ventricular septal defects. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 70:59-64.