Call Text Chat Email Refer a Patient Join a Study

Search

MotherToBaby

Medications and More during pregnancy and breastfeeding

Metformin

Selected References:

  • Abolhassani N, et al. 2023. Major malformations risk following early pregnancy exposure to metformin: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open Diab Res Care: 11(1):e002919. 
  • Bhorat I, et al. 2019. Assessment of the fetal myocardial performance index in well‐controlled gestational diabetics & to determine whether it is predictive of adverse perinatal outcome. Pediatr Cardiol. 40(7):1460–1467. 
  • Boggess KA, et al. 2023. Metformin plus insulin for preexisting diabetes or gestational diabetes in early pregnancy: The MOMPOD randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 330(22):2182-2190. 
  • Brand KMG, et al. 2022. Metformin in pregnancy and risk of adverse long-term outcomes: a register-based cohort study. BMJ Open Diab Res Care. 10(1): e002363. 
  • Brand KM, et al. 2022. Metformin in pregnancy and risk of abnormal growth outcomes at birth: a register-based cohort study. BMJ Open Diab Res Care: 10(6), e003056. 
  • Briggs GG, et al. 2005. Excretion of metformin into breast milk and the effect on nursing infants. Obstet Gynecol 105(6):1437-1441. 
  • Cassina M, et al. 2014. First-trimester exposure to metformin and risk of birth defects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update. 20(5):656-669. 
  • Coetzee EJ, et al. 1980. Pregnancy in established non-insulin-dependent diabetics: A five-and-a-half year study at Groote Schuur Hospital. S Afr Med J. 58(20):795-802. 
  • Coetzee EJ, et al. 1984. Oral hypoglycaemics in the first trimester and fetal outcome. S Afr Med J. 65(16):635-637. 
  • Dhulkotia JS, et al. 2010. Oral hypoglycemic agents vs insulin in management of gestational diabetes: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 203(5):457.e1-9. 
  • Diav-Citrin O, et al. 2018. In-utero exposure to metformin for type 2 diabetes or polycystic ovary syndrome: A prospective comparative observational study. Reprod Toxicol. 80:85-91. 
  • Farladansky-Gershnabel S, et al. 2025. Predictors of small-for-gestational-age infants in gestational diabetes mellitus: the impact of metformin use. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 312(2):445-450. 
  • Feig DS, et al. 2007. Oral antidiabetic agents in pregnancy and lactation: a paradigm shift? Ann Pharmacother. 41(7):1174-1180. 
  • Feig DS, et al. 2023. Outcomes in children of women with type 2 diabetes exposed to metformin versus placebo during pregnancy (MiTy Kids): a 24-month follow-up of the MiTy randomised controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 11(3):191–202. 
  • Filippi-Arriaga F, et al. 2025. EASO Position Statement: Women with Obesity across the Reproductive Life – Fertility, Preconception, Pregnancy, Postpartum, and Breastfeeding. Obes Facts. 18(6):625-639.  
  • Fornes R, et al. 2022. Pregnancy, perinatal and childhood outcomes in women with and without polycystic ovary syndrome and metformin during pregnancy: a nationwide population-based study. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 20(1):30. 
  • Gardiner SJ, et al. 2003. Transfer of metformin into human milk. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 73(1):71-77. 
  • Ghazeeri GS, et al. 2012. Pregnancy outcomes and effect of metformin treatment in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: an overview. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 91(6):658–678. 
  • Gilbert C, et al. 2006. Pregnancy outcome after first-trimester exposure of metformin: a meta-analysis. Fertil Steril. 86(3):658-663. 
  • Glueck CJ, et al. 2001. Continuing metformin throughout pregnancy in women with polycystic ovary syndrome appears to safely reduce first-trimester spontaneous abortion: a pilot study. Fertil Steril. 75(1):46-52. 
  • Glueck CJ, et al. 2002. Pregnancy outcomes among women with polycystic ovary syndrome treated with metformin. Hum Reprod 17(11):2858-2864. 
  • Glueck CJ, et al. 2004. Height, weight, and motor-social development during the first 18 months of life in 126 infants born to 109 mothers with polycystic ovary syndrome who conceived on and continued metformin through pregnancy. Hum Reprod. 19(6):1323-1330. 
  • Glueck CJ, et al. 2006. Growth, motor, and social development in breast- and formula-fed infants of metformin-treated women with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Pediatr 148(5):628-632. 
  • Glueck CJ et al. 2008. Prevention of gestational diabetes by metformin plus diet in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertil Steril 89:625-634. 
  • Glueck CJ, et al. 2013. Effects of metformin-diet intervention before and throughout pregnancy on obstetric and neonatal outcomes in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Current Med Res Opin. 29(1): 55-62. 
  • Greger HK, et al. 2020. Cognitive function in metformin exposed children, born to mothers with PCOS-follow-up of an RCT. BMC Pediatr. 20(1):60. 
  • Gordon HG, et al. 2024. Metformin in pregnancy and childhood neurodevelopmental outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 231(3):308-314. 
  • Jakubowicz D, et al.. 2002. Effects of metformin on early pregnancy loss in the polycystic ovary syndrome, J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 87(2): 524-529. 
  • Meek CL. 2023. An unwelcome inheritance: childhood obesity after diabetes in pregnancy. Diabetologia, 66(11), 1961-1970. 
  • Newman C, et al.. 2022. Metformin for pregnancy and beyond: the pros and cons. Diabet Med. 39(3):e14700. 
  • Newman C, et al. 2024. Treatment of diabetes in pregnancy with metformin. Obstet Gynecol. 144(5):660-669. 
  • Panchaud A, et al. 2018. Pregnancy outcomes in women on metformin for diabetes or other indications among those seeking teratology information services. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 84(3):568-578. 
  • Paschou SA, et al. 2024. Efficacy and safety of metformin during pregnancy: an update. Endocrine. 83(2):259-269.  
  • Picon-Cesar MJ, et al 2021. Metformin for gestational diabetes study: metformin vs insulin in gestational diabetes: glycemic control and obstetrical and perinatal outcomes: randomized prospective trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 225(5):517.e1-517.e17. 
  • Rotem RS, et al. 2024. paternal use of metformin during the sperm development period preceding conception and risk for major congenital malformations in newborns. Ann Intern Med. 177(7):851-861. 
  • Tarry-Adkins J, et al. 2019. Neonatal, infant, and childhood growth following metformin versus insulin treatment for gestational diabetes: A systemic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 16(8): e1002848. 
  • Tavlo M, et al. 2022. Hypothesis: Metformin is a potential reproductive toxicant. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 13: 1000872. 
  • Tosti G, et al. 2023. Lights and shadows on the use of metformin in pregnancy: from the preconception phase to breastfeeding and beyond. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 14: 1176623. 
  • Tseng CH. 2022. The effect of metformin on male reproductive function and prostate: An updated review. World J Mens Health. 40(1): 11-29. 
  • Wensink MJ, et al. Preconception antidiabetic drugs in men and birth defects in offspring: a nationwide cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2022;175(5):665-673.  
  • Wouldes TA, et al. 2016 Neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years in offspring of women randomised to metformin or insulin treatment for gestational diabetes. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 101(6):F488-F493. 
  • Yanachkova VE, et al. 2024. Metformin-associated maternal and neonatal outcomes in women with gestational diabetes – a retrospective cohort study. Ginekol Pol. 95(4):259-265. 
  • Yland JJ, et al. 2024. Perinatal outcomes associated with metformin use during pregnancy in women with pregestational type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 47(9):1688-1695. 
  • Yu YH, et al. 2025. Metformin and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes among pregnant women with gestational diabetes in the United Kingdom: A population-based cohort study. Diabetes Obes Metab. 27(2):976-986. 

This website is supported by the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) as part of an award totaling $1,200,000 with zero percentage financed with non-governmental sources. The contents are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official views of, nor an endorsement by, HRSA, HHS, or the U.S. Government.