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Lead

Selected References:

  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2007. Toxicological Profile for Lead. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
  • American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 2012/2018. Lead Screening During Pregnancy and Lactation. Committee Opinion Number 533. Obstet Gynecol 120(2, part 1):416-419.
  • Bellinger D. 1994. Teratogen Update: Lead. Teratology 50:367-373.
  • Bellinger D. 2005. Lead. Pediatrics 113:1016-1022.
  • Bellinger D. 2008. Neurological and behavioral consequences of childhood lead exposure. PLoS Med 5(5):e115.
  • Buck Louis GM, et al. 2016. Paternal exposures to environmental chemicals and time-to-pregnancy: overview of results from the LIFE study. Andrology. 4(4):639-47.
  • Buck Louis GM, et al. 2017. Low-level environmental metals and metalloids and incident pregnancy loss. Reprod Toxicol; 69:68-74.
  • Cantor AG, et al. 2019. Screening for Elevated Blood Lead Levels in Childhood and Pregnancy: Updated Evidence Report & Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 321(15):1510-1526.
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2017. Lead. New Blood Lead Level Information. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/acclpp/blood_lead_levels.htm. [Accessed 2/2018].
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2010. Guidelines for the Identification and Management of Lead Exposure in Pregnant and Lactating Women. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/docs/publications/leadandpregnancy2010.pdf [Accessed 1/2020].
  • Ernhart, C. 1992. A Critical review of low-level prenatal lead exposure in the human: effects on the fetus and newborn. Reprod Toxicol 6:9-19.
  • Dabeka RW, McKenzie AD. 1988. Lead and cadmium levels in commercial infant foods and dietary intake by infants 0-1 year old. Food Addit Contam 5333-342.
  • Dietrich K, et al. 1993. The developmental consequences of low to moderate prenatal and postnatal lead exposure: intellectual attainment in the Cincinnati lead study cohort following school entry. Neurotoxicol Teratology 15:37-44.
  • Disha S, et al. 2019. Association of raised blood lead levels in pregnant women with preeclampsia: A study at tertiary centre. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol. 58(1):60-63.
  • Ernhart, C, et al. 1986. Intrauterine exposure to low levels of lead: the status of the neonate. Archives Environ Health 41:287-291.
  • Ettinger AS, et al. 2004. Effect of breast milk lead on infant blood lead levels at 1 month of age. Environ Health Perspect 112(14):1381-5.
  • Food and Drug Administration. Lead in candy likely to be consumed frequently by small children: recommended maximum level and enforcement policy. Retrieved February 2016 from: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/pbguid2.html, https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ChemicalContaminantsMetalsNaturalToxinsPesticides/ucm077904.htm Accessed 2/2018, https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/Metals/ucm172050.htm Accessed 2/2018.
  • Gardella, C. 2001. Lead exposure in pregnancy: a review of the literature and argument for routine prenatal screening. Obstet Gynecol Surv 56:231-238.
  • Geng F, et al. 2014. Low-level prenatal lead exposure alters auditory recognition memory in 2-month-old infants: an event-related potentials (ERPs) study. Dev Neuropsychol 39(7):516-28.
  • Gulson BL, et al. 1999. Estimation of cumulative lead releases (lead flux) from the maternal skeleton during pregnancy and lactation. J Lab Clin Med 134:631-640.
  • Gulson B, et al. 2016. Revisiting mobilisation of skeletal lead during pregnancy based on monthly sampling and cord/maternal blood lead relationships confirm placental transfer of lead. Arch Toxicol. 90(4):805-16.
  • Hale T. 2004. Medications and Mothers’ Milk, 11th Pharmasoft Publishing, TX.
  • Hong YC, et al. 2014. Postnatal growth following prenatal lead exposure and calcium intake. Pediatrics 134(6):1151-9Isaac CP, et al. 2012. Lead levels in breast milk, blood plasma and intelligence quotient: a health hazard for women and infants. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 88(2):145-9.
  • Li J, et al. 2017. Maternal serum lead level during pregnancy is positively correlated with risk of preterm birth in a Chinese population. Environ Pollut. 227:484-489.
  • Liu J, et al. 2014.  Lead exposure at each stage of pregnancy and neurobehavioral development of neonates. Neurotoxicology 44:1-7.
  • Minnesota Department of Public Health. Blood Lead Screening Guidelines for Pregnant Women in Minnesota. Available at: https://www.leg.state.mn.us/docs/2008/other/080007.pdf [Accessed 1/2020].
  • National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH)/Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)/US Centers for Disease Control. 2010. Guidelines for the Identification and Management of Lead Exposure in Pregnant and Lactating Women. https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/publications/leadandpregnancy2010.pdf
  • Poropat AE, et al. 2018. Blood lead and preeclampsia: A meta-analysis and review of implications. Environ Res. 160:12-19.
  • Rabinowitz, M, et al. 1987. Pregnancy hypertension, blood pressure during labor, and blood lead levels. Hypertension 10:447-451.
  • Rabito FA, et al. 2014. Changes in low levels of lead over the course of pregnancy and the association with birth outcomes. Reprod Toxicol 50: 138-144.
  • Rothenberg, S, et al. 2000. Maternal bone lead contribution to blood lead during and after pregnancy. Environ Res 82:81-90.
  • Silbergeld, EK 1991. Lead In bone: implications for toxicology during pregnancy and lactation. Environ Health Perspect 91:63-70.
  • Taylor C, et al. 2015. Adverse effects of maternal lead levels on birth outcomes in the ALSPAC study: a prospective birth cohort study. BJOG;122(3):322-8
  • Tennessee Department of Health: Lead Poisoning and Hobbies. Available at: https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/SP605-K.pdf
  • Tong, S, et al. 1996. Lifetime exposure to environmental lead and children’s intelligence at 11-13 years: The Port Pirie Cohort Study. BMJ. 312:1569-1575.
  • United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Learn about Lead. Available at: https://www.epa.gov/lead/learn-about-lead.
  • Wang H,et al. 2017. High serum lead concentration in the first trimester is associated with an elevated risk of small-for-gestational-age infants. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1;332:75-80.

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